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THE    U^t.   Of   SCHOOLS, 


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WELLS'S  SCMOUL  GRAMMAR-REVISED  EDITION. 


GRAM  M  A  R 


OF    THE 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


FOR.   THE    USE   OF   SCHOOLS. 


BY 


W.   H.    WELLS,    M.A., 

BUPKRISTENDE-NT  OF  l»lrt5LIC  SOflOOI-S,  CHICAGO;    AN'D  LATE   PKISCIPAL  Of  TUB 
STATE  A'OUilAL  SCHOOL,  WESTl'IELU,  MAljti. 


TWO   HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY-FIFTH  THOUSAND. 


CHICAGO: 
S.  C.  GRIGGS  &  CO.,  39  &  41  LAIvE  ST. 

NKW  YOEK:  IVISON,  PUI^NEY"  .fe  0011l\V:sr. 

boston;   brown,  TAIiGAr.O  a  OIl-VSE.        tlilLAUKI.l'llIA  :   SOWEK,   BAESE3- 

A  CO.,  AND  J.  B.  LIPl'ISCOTT  <b  CO.     OINCIN'NATI  VSIOOKl-:,  WILSTACU, 

EEIS  !c  CO.      SAVANNAH  t  J.  II.  COOPBB  A  Co.      ST.  LOUIS  :  KEITH 

&  WOODS.      NEW   OELK.iJSS:    BLOOiLFIKLU,  STEEL  &  CO 

DETROIT  :    F.    BAYilOND    A  CO. 

18   6   0. 


EnU^red,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  m  the  yoar  1S5S,  by 

IVISON    &    PIIINNEY, 

In  the  Clerk's  0£6ce  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of 

New  York. 


./-- 


/ 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION, 


When  tlie  first' edition  of  this  Grammar  was  publislied,  it 
contained  more  principles  and  exercises  in  Grammatical  Analy- 
sis than  liad  appeared  in  any  work  previously  issued  in  this 
country.  It  would  have  been  easy  to  embody  tbe  more  ab- 
struse principles  of  Analysis  which  are  contained  in  the  works 
of  Kiibner,  Crane,  De  Sacy,  and  other  foreign  writers,  but  it 
was  feared  that  such  a  system  would  rather  confuse  than  aid 
the  pupils  in  om-  schools.  All  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Analysis  were  presented,  and  teachers  were  urged  to  introduce 
their  pupils  as  early  as  practicable  to  this  important  branch  of 
grammatical  stud}'.  It  was  not,  however,  intended  to  recom- 
mend that  Grammatical  Analysis  should  supersede  the  essential 
exercises  of  Etymological  and  Syntactical  Parsing. 

.  The  tendency  of  our  schools  is  to  reach  at  once  toward  that 
which  is  called  Jiigher,  and  neglect  that  which  has  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  regarded  as  loioer  ;  Avhile  it  is  obvious  that  the  lower 
departments  of  study  are  at  least  equally  important  with  the 
higher,  and  that  neither  should  be  allowed  to  take  the  place  of 
the  other.  It  is  not  then  remarkable,  that  many  teachers  should 
have  gone  from  a  mere  routine  of  common  parsing  to  the  op- 
posite extreme,  and  devoted  their  attention  almost  exclusively 
to  Analysis.  Hence  we  find  at  the  present  time  not  a  few 
schools  in  which  pupils  know  very  little  of  Etymological  and 
Syntacticat  Parsing,  while  they  are  able  to  recite  with  uncom- 
mon fluency  in  all  the  forms  of  technical  Analysis. 

It  is  this  tendency  to  an  extreme,  that  has  in  so  many  in- 
Btances  brought  the  whole  system  of  Grammatical  Analysis 


ivi'^53QpO 


/T'* 


iv  PREFACE    TO    THE    REVISED    EDITION. 

into  disrepute.  The  experience  of  the  last  few  years  has  satis- 
fied intelligent  Teachers  and  Boards  of  Education  that  jjupila 
need  to  be  thoroughly  instructed  both  in  the  elements  of  Ety- 
mological and  Syntactical  Parsing,  and  in  the  principles  of 
Grammatical  Analysis;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  each  department 
will  hereafter  receive  its  due  share  of  attention  in  the  study  of 
our  mother  tongue. 

In  the  present  edition  of  the  School  Grammar,  that  portion 
of  the  work  which  is  devoted  to  Analysis  has  been  re-written 
and  greatly  enlarged.  It  will  now  be  found  characterized  by 
completeness  in  the  presentation  of  principles,  and  by  copious- 
ness in  the  illustrations.  The  remarks  which  accompany  the 
illustrative  examples  explain  a  great  variety  of  idioms  and  forms 
of  construction,  and  will  be  found  more  useful  to  the  learner 
than  the  same  number  of  special  rules. 

The  chapter  on  the  Grammatical  Connection  and  Relation 
of  Words,  p.  134,  has  met  with  special  favor  among  intelligent 
teachers.     It  has  been  carefully  revised  in  the  present  edition. 

Several  pages  of  the  Grammar  have  heretofore  been  devoted 
to  the  Sounds  of  the  Letters.  As  this  subject  is  now  fully  il- 
lustrated in  all  the  principal  series  of  School  Readers,  it  ia 
omitted  in  the  present  edition. 

CmcAQO,  February.  27,  1858. 


ORIGINAL  PREFACE. 


About  nine  years  since,  while  engaged  in  tlio  instruction 
of  a  class  of  Teachers,  the  author  commenced  a  critical  exam- 
ination of  several  grammatical  works,  in  connection  with  a 
Bystcraatic  course  of  English  reading.  All  the  important 
principles  of  the  language  were  familiarly  discussed  before  the 
class.  The  definitions  and  rules  of  different  grammarians  were 
carefully  compared  with  one  another,  and  tested  by  constant 
reference  to  the  usasre  of  standard  writers.  In  conductingr  the 
exercises  of  successive  classes  of  Teachers,  a  similar  course  has 
been  repeated  from  year  to  year  till  the  present  time.  The 
result  of  these  labors  is  embodied  in  the  work  now  offered  to 
the  public* 

English  Grammar  is  too  often  taught  as  if  it  were  merely 
the  art  of  Parsing.  It  is  hoped  that  instructors  will  find  the 
present  work  adapted  to  teach  "  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ingT  Copious  exercises  and  illustrations  have  been  introduced, 
and  the  learner  is  required  to  make  constant  application  of 
the  principles  as  he  advances. 

The  essay  on  Oral  Instruction  was  prepared  at  the  request 
of  Henry  Barnard,  Esq.,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  for 
the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  and  first  appeared  as  one  of  his 
series  of  Educational  Tracts.  W.  H.  "W". 

PHiLLrps  Academy,  Audover,  Mass.,  1846. 

*  In  pursuing  these  investigations,  the  author  has  collected  more  than 
fotir  hundred  different  treatises  on  EngUsh  G-rammar,  and  noted  above 
twenty  thousand  illustrative  examples  in  the  productions  of  the  best 
Enghsh  writers. 


CATALOGUE  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMilURS. 


[The  catalogue  here  given  embraces  only  those  Grammars  to  which 
special  reference  is  made  in  the  pages  of  the  following  work. 

Adams,  Rev.  Charles,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Boston;  1838. 

Adams,  Daniel,  3d  ed.  12mo,  Montpelier,  Vt. ;  1814. 

Ainsworth,  Luther,  12mo,  Providence;  1837. 

Alden,  Abner.  A.  M.,  12mo,  Boston;  1811. 

Alexander,  Caleb,  A.  M.,  10th  ed.,  12nio,  Keene,  N.  H. ;  1814. 

Alexander,  Samuel,  4th  cd,,  18mo,  London;  1832. 

Allen,  Rev.  William,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  London;  1824.  - 

Allen  and  Cornwell,  3d  ed.,  ISmo,  London;  1841. 

Angell,  Oliver,  A.  .\L,  12mo,  Providence;  1830. 

Angus,  William,  M.  A.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Glasgow;  1807. 

Arnold,  T.  K.,  M  A.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  London ;  1841. 

Ash,  John,  LL.  I).,  now  ed.,  18mo,  London;  1785. 

Badglev,  Jonathan,  !2nio,  Utica;  1845. 

Balch,  William  S.,  12mo,  Boston  ;   1839. 

Baldwin,  Ed  ware,   2d  ed.,  ISmo,  London;   1824. 

Barnard,  F.  A.  P.,  A.  M.,  12nio,  New  York ;  1836. 

Barrett,  John,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Boston;   1819. 

Barrett,  Solomon,  10th  ed.,  ISmo,  Utica;  1845. 

Barre,  Alexander,  9th  ed.,  18mo,  Edinburgh  ;  1800. 

Beall,  Alexander,  12mo,  Cincinnati;  1841. 

Bell,  John,  12mo,  Glasgow;  1769. 

Bicknell,  Alexander,  12mo,  London  ;   1790. 

Bingham,  Caleb,  A.  JI.,  12th  ed.,  24mo,  Boston;  1801. 

Blair,  Rev.  David,  15th  ed.,  18mo,  London;  1826. 

Booth,  David,  12mo,  London;  1837. 

Brace.  Joab,  18rao,  Philadelphia;  1839. 

Brightland,  John,  5th  ed.,  12mo,  London;  1728. 

British  Grammar,  12nio,  London  and  Boston;  1784. 

Brittain,  Rev.  Lewis,  2d  ed.,  London  ;    1790 

Brown,  Goold,  stereotype  ed.,  12mo,  New  York:  1846. 

Buchanan,  James,  12mo,  London  ;  1767.  —  Philadelphia^   179 

Bufke,  Charles,  ISmo,  London;  1829. 

Bullions,  Peter,  D.  D.,  15th  ed.,  12mo,  New  York;  1846. 

Burn,  John,  7th  ed.,  18mo,  Glasgow;  1799. 

BuiT,  Jonathan,  A.  ^L  3d  ed.,  18mo,  Boston;  1818. 

Butler,  Noble,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Louisville,  Kv. ;  1845. 

Cardell,  William   S.,  3d  ed.,  18mo,  HartfoVd  ;  1827. 

Ohapin,  Joel,  12nno,  Springfield  ;  1842. 

Churchill   T.  O.,  12mo,  London;   1823. 

Coar,  Thomas,  12mo,  London;  1796. 

Cobb,  E.,  2d  ed.,  12mo, Boston;  1821. 

Cobbett,  William,  12mo,  London;  1818. —  New  York;  1833 


LIST    OF    AUTHORS.  vU 

Cochran,  Peter,  A.  B.,  ISmo,  Boston  ;  1802 

Comly,  John,  15th  ed.,  18mo,  Philadelphia  ;  1838 

Connel,  Robert,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Glas<^ow;  1834. 

Connon,  C.  W  ,  M.  A.,  12mo,  Edinburgh;  1845. 

Cooper,  J.  G.,  limo,  Philadelphia;  1831. 

Coot,  C,  LL  D.,  8vo,  London  ;  1788. 

Cornell,  William  M.,  4to,  Boston ;  1840. 

Crane,  George,  12itio,  London;  1843. 

CromI)ie,  Alexander,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  4th  ed.,  8vo,  London ;  18S6. 

Cutler,  Andrew,  12mo,  Plainfield,  Ct;  1841. 

Dalton,  John,  2d  ed.,  i2mo,  London  ;  1803. 

Davenport,  B.,  18mo,  Wilmington,  Del;  1830. 

Davis,  Pardon,  12mo,  Philadelphia;  1845. 

Day,  Parsons  E.,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  1844. 

Dearborn,  Benjamin,  12mo,  Boston;  1795. 

Del  Mar,  E.,  ]2mo,  London  ;  1842. 

Dilworth,  Thornas,  26th  ed.,  12mo,  London  ;  1764. 

D'Orsey,  Alexander  J.  D.,  12mo,  Edinburgh  :  1842. 

Earl,  Mary,  18mo,  Boston  ;   1816. 

Elmore,  D.  W.,  A.  M.,  18mo,  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  1830. 

Elphinston,  James,  12mo,  London;  1766. 

Emmons,  S.  B.,  12mo,  Boston;  1832. 

Everest,  Cornelius  B.,  12mo,  Norwich  ;  1835. 

Farnum,  Caleb,  A.  M.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Boston;  1843. 

Farro,  D.,  12nio,  London;  1754. 

Felch,  W.,  12mo,  Boston  ;  1837. 

Felton,  O.  C,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Salem;  1843. 

Penning,  D.,  12rao,  London  ;  1771. 

Fisher,  A.,  28th  ed.,  12mo,  London;  1795. 

Fletcher,  Levi,  12mo,  Philadelphia  ;  1834. 

Flint,  John,  18mo,  New  York;  1837. 

Flower,  M.  and  W.  B.,  18mo,  London  ;  1844. 

Fowlc,  William  B.,  12mo,  Boston;  1842. 

Frazec,  Rev.  Bradford,  12mo,  Philadelphia;  1844. 

French,  D'Arcy  A.,  12mo,  Baltimore;  1831. 

Frost,  John,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Philadelphia  ;  1842. 

Fuller,  Allen,  12mo,  PI vmouth,  Mass.;  1822. 

Gilbert,  E.,  ISmo,  New"  York  ;  1835. 

Giles,  Rev.  T.  A.,  M.  A.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  London;  1838 

Goldsbury,  John,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Boston  ;  1842. 
'Goodenow,  S.  B.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Boston  ;  1843. 
;  Graham,  G.  F.,  12mo,  London  ;  1843. 
-Grant,  John,  A.  M.,  12mo,  London;  1813. 

Granville,  George,  12mo,  London;  1827. 

Green,  R.  W.,  5ih  ed.,  18mo,  Philadelphia;  1834. 
■  Greenleaf,  J.,  20th  ed.,  4to,  New  York ;  1 837. 

Greenwood,  James,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  London;  1722. 

Gurnev,  David,  A.-M.,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Boston;  1808. 
X  ^    Hall.  Rev,  S.  R.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Springfield;  1833. 
^Wi  Hallock;  (Edward  J.,  12mo,  Andover  ;  1842. 
^-Hamlin,  L.  F.,  stereotyjie  ed.,  12mo,  New  York;  1832 

Hart,  John  S.,  A.  M.,"l2mo,  Philadelphia;  1845. 

Hazen,  Edward,  A.  M.,  12mo,  New  York ;  1842. 


Vlll  LIST    OF    AUTHORS. 

Hazlitt,  Wm.,  ISmo,  London  ;  1810. 

Hendiirk,  J.  L.,  A.  M  ,  18mo,  Svracuse  ;  1S44. 

HiRginson,  Rev.  T.  E.,  12mo,  Dublin  ;  180.3. 

Hilcy,  Richard,  .3d  ed.,  12mo,  London  ;  1840. 

Hodgson,  Rev.  Isaac,  12iiio,  London  ;  1770. 

Hornsc)',  John,  6th  cd.,  12mo,  York,  England ;  1816. 

Hort,  W.  Jillard,  18mo,  London  ;  1822. 

Howe,  S.  L.,  ISmo,  Lancaster,  Ohio  ;  1838. 

Hull,  J.  H.,  4th  ed.,  12ino,  Boston;   1828. 

Inp:ersoll,  C.  M.,  12mo,  Philadelphia  ;  183.5. 

Jaudon,  D.,  4th  cd.,  18mo,  Philadelphia;   1828. 

Jenkins,  Azariah,  12mo,  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  1835. 

Joel,  Thomas,  12mo,  London;  177.5. 

Jolinson,  Samuel,  LL.  D.,  (prefixed  to  Dictionary),  4to,  London;  1775. 

Johnson,  Ben,  8vo,  London;  1640.  —  1816. 

Jones,  Joshua,  18mo,  Philadelphia;  1841. 

Judson,  Adoniram,  A.  B.,  12mo.  Boston;  1808. 

Kcnnion,  Charlotte,  12mo,  London;  1842. 

King-,  Walter  W.,  ISmo,  London;  1841. 

Kirkham.  Samuel.  36th  cd.,  12mo,  Rochester,  N.  Y.;  1834. 

Latham,  R.  G.,  A.  M.,  12ino,  London  ;  1843. 

Lennie,  William,  1.3th  ed.,  ISmo,  Edinburgh;  1831, 

Lewis,  William  G.,  ISmo,  London;  1821. 

Lindsay.  Rev.  John,  A.  M.,  ISmo,  London:  1842. 

Locke,  John,  IM.  D.,  ISmo,  Cincinnati ;   1827. 

Lovcchild,  Mrs..  40th  ed.,  ISmo,  London  ;   1842. 

Lowth,  Robert,  LL.  D.,  ISmo,  London;  1763.  — Cambridge,  U.  S. ;  1838 

Lvnde,  John,  ISmo,  Wood-^tock,  Vt. ;  1821. 

I^iaittaire,  Michael,  12mo,  London;   1712. 

Marcct,  Mrs.,  7th  cd.,  18mo,  London;  1843. 

Martin,  Benjamin,  12mo.  London;   1754. 

IM^CrciKly,  F.,  12mo,  Philadelphia;  1820. 

M  Culloch,  J.  M.,  ]:>.  D.,  7th  ed.,  ISmo,  Edinburgh;  1841. 

IMcilan,  Mark  Anthonv,  12mo,  London;  1803. 

INIcnye,  J.,  12mo,  New  York;  1785. 

Milligan,  Rev.  George,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Edinburgh;  1839. 

INIorgan,  Jonathan,  A.  B.,  12mo,  Hallowell,  Me.;  1814. 

Morely,  Charles,  A.  B.,  ISmo,  Hartford;  1836. 

Murray,  Lindley,  8vo,  Holdgate,  England;  1795. —New  York;  1814. 

Nutting,  Rufus,  A.  M.,3d  ed.,  12mo,  Montpelier,  Vt.;  1826. 

Oliver,  Edward,  D.  D.,  12mo,  London;  1807. 

Oliver,  Samuel,  8vo,  London  ;  1825. 

Parker  and  Fox,  5th  ed.,  12mo,  Boston  ;  1837. 

Parkhurst,  John  L.,  ISmo,  Andover;  1838. 

Peirce,  Oliver  B.,  12mo,  New  York  ;  1839. 

Pcrlcy,  Daniel,  M.  D.,  ISmo,  Andover;  1834. 

Perry,  William,  (prefixed  to  Dictionary),  12mo,  Edinburgh  ;  180L 

Picket,  A.  and  J.  W.,  12mo,  Cincinnati ;  1837. 

Pinnock,  W.,  12mo,  London:  1829. 

Pond's  Murray,  6th  ed.,  12mo,  Worcester;  1835. 

I'owers,  Daniel,  A.  M.,  12mo,  West  Brookfield.  Mass.;  1845. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  LL.  D.,  3d  cd.,  ISmo,  London;  1772. 

Pne,  Hugh  A.,  ISmo,  Philadelphia;  1841. 


LIST    OF    AUTHORS.  1^ 

Pullen,  P.  H.,  2d  ed.,  12ino,  London  ;  1822. 

Putuam,  J.  M.,  18uio,  Concord,  N.  H.;  1831 

Reed,  Caleb,  A.  M.,  18mo,  Boston  ;  1821. 

Robbins,  Manasseh,  12mo,  Providence  ;  1826. 

Ross,  Robert,  7th  ed.,  12rao,  Hartford;  1782. 

Russell,  J.,  D.  D.,  10th  ed.,  ISino,  London;  1842. 

Ru.ssell,  William  E.,  2d  ed.,  ISmo,  Hartford;  1819. 

Sanborn,  D.  H^  12mo,  Concord.N.  H.;  1836. 

Sinimonite,  W.  J.,  12iiio,  London  ;  1841. 

SkiHern,  R.  S.,A.  IM.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Gloucester,  England,  1808. 

Smart,  B.  H.,  12mo, London;  1841. 

Smetham,  Thomas,  12rao,  London;  1774. 

Smith,  Eli,  18mo,  Philadelphia  ;  1812. 

Smith,  Peter,  A.  M.,  18mo,  EdinburLch;  1826. 

Smith,  R.  C,  stereotype  ed.,  12mo,  Philadelphia;  1845. 

Snyder,  W.,  12mo,  Winchester;  1834. 

Spear,  M.  P.,  12mo,  Boston  ;  1845. 

Staniford,  Daniel,  A.  M.,  2d  ed.,  18mo,  Boston  ;  1815. 

Stearns,  George,  4to,  Boston  ;  1843. 

St.  Quentin,  D.,  A.  M.,  12mo,  London;  1812. 

Story,  Joshua,  3d  ed.,  12mo,  Newcastle,  England  ;  1783 

Sutclitfe,  Joseph,  A.  M.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Loudon;  1815. 

Swett,  J.,  A.  INI.,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Claremont,  N.  H.;  1844. 

Ticken,  William,  12mo,  Loudon;   1806. 

Tickuor,  Elisha,  A.  M.,  3d  ed.,  18mo,  Boston ;  1794. 

Todd,  Lewis  C,  2d  ed.,  18mo,Fredonia,  N.  Y.;  1827. 

Trinder,  William  M.,  12mo,  London;  1781. 

Ussher,  G  Neville,  12mo,  London;  1787.  — Exeter,  N.  H.-   ISOt. 

Waldo,  John,  18mo,  Philadelphia;  1814. 

Walker,  John,  12mo,  London;   1805. 

Wallis,  John,  D.  D.,  (in  Latin),  6th  ed.,  8vo,  London;  1765. 

Ward,  H.,  12mo,  Whitehaven,  England;  1777. 

Ward,  John,  LL.  D.,  12mo,  London;  1758. 

Ward,  William,  M.  A.,  3d  ed.,  12mo,  Northampton,  England;  '771 

Webber,  Samuel,  12mo,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  1832. 

Webster,  Noah,  LL.  D.,  12mo,  New  Haven;  1831. 

Weld,  A.  U.,  M.  A.,  12mo,  Portland  ;  1846. 

Whiting,  Joseph,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Detroit;  1845. 

Wilbur,  Josiah,  2d  ed.,  12mo,  Bellows  Falls;  1822. 

Wilcox,  A.  P.,  18mo,  New  Haven;  1S2S. 

Willard,  Samuel,  18mo,  Greenlield,  Mass ;  1816. 

Wilson,  George,  18mo,  London;  1777. 

Wilson,  J. P.,  D.  D.,  8vo,  Philadelphia;  1817. 

Worcester,  Samuel,  18mo,  Gloucester,  Mass.;  1827. 

Wright,  Joseph  W.,  C.  E.,  12mo,  New  York;  1838. 

BrOA-u,  Guold,  8vo,  New  York  ;   1851. 

Barton,  Rev.  J.  G.,  A.M.,  ISmo,  New  Y'ork;  1855. 

Barnes,  William,  B.  D.,  8vo,  London ;  1854. 

Clark,  S.  W.,  A.  M.,  12mo,  New  York ;  1856. 

Foivler,  William  C,  8vo,  New  York  ;  1855. 

Goodwin,  Thomas,  A.  B.,  12mo,  Loudon ;  1855. 

Mulligan,  John,  A.  M.,  12mo,  Now  York;  1852. 

Pinueo,  T.  S.,  M.  A.,  12mo,  Cincinnati ;  1850. 


^0/ 


TO    TEACHERS. 


That  portiou  of  the  work  wliicli  is  printed  in  the  largest 
type,  is  designed  for  beginners ;  and  the  corresponding 
questions  are  pruited  in  Roman  characters.  That  whicn 
is  printed  in  type  of  the  second  size,  is  designed  for  pupils 
more  advanced ;  and  the  corresponding  questions  are  in 
Italics.  That  wluch  is  printed  in  the  smallest  type,  is 
designed  for  occasional  reference. 

The  Exercises  which  occur  in  different  portions  of  the 
work  are  intended  to  he  modified  or  extended  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  teachers. 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION 


IN 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


[The  following:  outline  of  Oral  Instruction  is  designed  to  funiir.Ti 
practical  sufrgestions  to  teachers  engaged  in  impai-ting  a  linov/ledgi-  of 
the  rudiments  of  English  Grammar. 

By  ado]3ting  a  familiar,  inductive  method  of  presenting  this  subject,  it 
may  be  rendered  highly  attractive  to  young  learners ;  and  the  practice 
of  introducing  illustrative  exercises  in  composition,  will  be  found  to 
afford  gi-eat  assistance  to  pupils  in  comprehending  and  retaining  the 
principles  presented,  while  it  also  leads  them  to  cultivate  the  habit  of 
expressing  their  thoughts  with  facility  and  accuracy. 

It  is  not  expected  that  teachers  will  confine  themselves  strictly  to  any 
particular  system ;  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  general  features  of  the  sketch 
here  presented  will  be  found  to  meet  the  wants  of  all  classes  of 
beginners.] 


TARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

§  1.  The  classijication  of  words  may  be  introduced  by  referring 
to  the  different  kinds  of  trees;  to  the  different  kinds  of  animals; 
or  to  any  other  coUection  of  objects  that  admit^i  of  a  regular  division 
into  distinct  classes.  Thus,  when  we  go  into  a  forest,  we  find  that 
the  number  of  trees  about  us  is  greater  than  we  can  estimate. 
But  we  soon  observe  that  a  portion  of  thera  have  certain  striking 
resemblances,  while  they  differ  essentially  from  all  the  rest.  We 
also  observe  that  others,  which  differ  materially  from  these,  have 
similar  resemblances  to  one   another.      And   by   extending  otir 


12  ORAL    INSTKTJCTIOK. 

observation,  we  find  that  this  countless  multitude  of  trees  all  belong 
to  a  very  few  simple  classes,  which  are  easily  distinguished  from 
one  an  other.  Those  of  one  class  we  associate  together,  and  call 
them  Oak  trees :  those  of  another  class  we  call  Pine  ti-ees ;  and  in 
this  manner  we  proceed  with  all  the  different  kinds. 

Just  so  it  is  vAxh.  the  words  of  our  lan£fuag;e.  Though  their  num- 
ber  is  about  eighty  thousand,  yet  we  find,  on  a  careful  examination, 
that  they  all  belong  to  less  than  a-  dozen  different  classes,  called 
Parts  of  Speech ;  so  that  we  have  only  to  leai-n  the  'character  of 
these  divisions,  and  we  shall  be  able  to  teU  the  class  to  which  any 
woi'd  in  the  language  belongs. 

By  some  such  introductory  illustration,  the  curiosity  of  a  class  of 
beginners  may  be  easily  excited,  and  they  will  thus  be  prepared  to 
enter  with  eagerness  upon  the  labor  of  learning  to  distinguish  the 
diHerent  parts  of  speech. 

The  teacher  should  lead  his  pupils  to  take  an  active  part  in  these 
lessons  from  the  beginning ;  not  only  by  proposing  frequent  ques- 
tions for  them  to  answer,  but  also  by  encouraging  them  to  ask  such 
questions  as  their  own  curiosity  may  suggest. 


THE   NOUN. 

§  2.  Having  prepared  the  way  for  the  consideration  of  woi  tls,  the 
teacher  next  requests  his  pupils  to  mention  the  names  of  any  objecta 
that  occur  to  them.  As  they  proceed  to  give  the  words  book,  desk, 
inkstand,  etc.,  the  teacher  writes  them  in  a  column  on  the  black- 
board. 

The  teacher  now  asks  a  variety  of  questions,  similar  to  the  fol- 
lowing :  —  Are  all  words  names  ?  Can  you  mention  any  words 
that  are  not  names  ?  Are  good  and  bad,  names  ?  Why  not  ?  Can 
you  think  of  any  object  that  has  not  a  name  ?  Do  any  objects  that 
you  cannot  see  or  touch  have  names  ?  Is  tvise  a  name  ?  Is  zt'Z5« 
domf     Virtue?     Virtuous?     Knoidedge? 

After  these  questions  have  been  disposed  of,  the  pupils  are  in 
formed  that  the  names  of  all  objects,  whether  material  or  immate- 
rial, are  called  Nouns;  and  the  teacher  proceeds  at  the  same  time 
to  write  this  title  over  the  column  of  names  on  the  board 


ORAL    LNSTRUCTION.  13 

One  or  more  sentences  are  now  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils, 
or  written  on  the  board ;  and  each  member  of  the  class  proceeds  to 
select  all  the  nouns,  and  write  them  in  a  column  on  a  slate  or  piece 
of  paper.  The  teacher  should  commence  with  sentences  of  the 
simplest  construction,  and  afterwards  introduce  more  difficult  forms 
of  expression  as  the  learners  advance. 

Model  I.* 

The  earth  is  a  large  globe  or  hcdl.  — Virtue  is  belter  than  riches. 

Nouns. 

Earth 

Globe 

Ball 

Virtae 

Eiches 

Exercises  of  this  description  should  be  continued  till  the  pupils 
are  able  to  point  out  the  nouns  of  any  common  sentence  with 
readiness. 

The  teacher  next  writes  several  nouns  on  the  black-board,  and 
calls  on  the  class  to  construct  one  or  more  sentences  embracing  the 
words  which  he  has  placed  before  them. 

Model  U. 

Sun,  bird,  idleness,  night. 

The  hawk  is  a  bud  of  prey.  —  Idleness  often  leads  to  vice.  —  The  sun 
shines  by  day,  and  the  moon  by  night. 

After  going  through  with  several  exercises  of  this  kind,  the  pu- 
pils may  be  required  to  construct  a  variety  of  sentences,  and  write 
the  letter  n  over  all  the  nouns  embraced  in  them. 

Model  III.f 


n 


In  winter  the  ponds  and  rivers  are  generally  covered  with  ice.  —  Eus* 
n  n 

sia  is  the  largest  country  in  Europe. 

*  See  Frazee's  Gramuiar.  f  See  Greenleaf 's  Grammar. 


14  ORAL    INSTRUCTION. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

§  3.  "When  the  pupils  have  become  sufficiently  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  nouns,  they  may  be  introduced  to  the  class  of  Adjec- 
tives in  a  similar  manner.  The  teacher  directs  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  to  a  book,  and  asks  if  they  can  mention  any  words  that  ex- 
press its  character  or  quality.  To  this  they  will  readily  answer,  that 
it  is  a  good  book,  a  large  book,  an  interesting  book,  etc.  The  teach- 
er then  calls  on  them  to  name  as  many  words  as  they  can,  that  ex- 
press the  qualities  of  objects.  As  they  proceed  to  eniunerate  words 
of  this  class,  the  teacher  writes  them  in  a  column  on  the  board  as 
before. 

Such  expressions  as  "  These  books,"  "  A  wise  man,"  "  Ten  days," 
are  next  written  on  the  board ;  and  the  learners  are  requested  to 
point  out  the  words  which  serve  to  define  or  limit  the  nouns,  but  do 
not  strictly  qualify  them.  After  this  is  done,  they  proceed  to  men- 
lion  others  of  the  same  character,  which  are  written  under  the 
column  of  qualifying  words  already  commenced.  It  is  now  time  to 
inform  them  that  all  words  which  are  used  to  qualify  ov  define 
nouns,  belong  to  the  class  called  Adjectives ;  and  this  title  is  accord- 
ingly placed  at  the  head  of  the  column  of  words  on  the  board. 

The  pupils  may  also  be  told  in  this  connection,  that  the  words  a 
or  an  and  the  are  distinguished  from  other  definitives  by  the  title 
of  Articles. 

Simple  sentences  are  again  placed  before  the  pupils,  and  they  are 
required  to  select  all  the  adjectives,  writing  them  in  a  column  as 
before.  They  should  also  distinguish  the  articles,  by  underlining 
them  in  the  column. 

Model  IV. 

Great  men  are  not  always  wise.  —  The  dimaie  of  Egyft  is  hct  in  SHJHnur, 
but  deligluful  in  winter. 

Adjkctites. 

Great 
Wise 
The 

Hot 
Delightful 

Other  Bentences  are  now  givea  to  the  pupils,  from  which  they 


ORAL    INSTEDCTION.  li 

select  tlie  nouns  and  adjectives,  writing  them  in  separate  columns ; 
and  distinguishing  the  articles  as  in  the  previous  exercise. 

Model  V. 

There  are  very  few  plants  thai  iciU  grow  in  all  countries.  —  Ivon/  is  a  hard 
solid,  and  firm  substance,  of  a  white  color. 

Nouxs.  Adjectives. 

Plants  Few 

Coantriea  All 

Ivory  A 

Substance  tt    , 

Color  Hard 

Sohd 

Firm 

A 

White 

The  teacher  next  writes  a  number  of  adjectives  oni  the  board, 
and  the  pupils  proceed  as  before  to  form  the  sentences  which  em- 
brace them. 

Model  VL 

Diligent,  cold,  warm,  sweet. 

Charles  is  a  diligent  scholar.  —  In  cold  weather  we  protect  ourselves 
by  the  use  of  warm  clothing.  —  The  rose  is  sweet,  but  it  is  surrounded 
with  thorns. 

After  this,  the  pupils  write  sentences  containing  adjectives  of 
their  own  selection.  In  exercises  of  this  character,  the  learners 
should  distinguish,  by  their  several  abbreviations,  all  the  parts  of 
speech  to  which  they  have  attended. 

Model  Vil. 

n       _  ar  adj  n  adi     n  ar 

Copper  is  a  very  useful  metal,  which  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
n  ^  ar  adj      n  adj       n 

world.    It  is  of  ^  red  color,  and  may  be  drawn  out  into  fine  wire,  or 

adj       n 
beaten  into  thin  leaves. 


THE  VERB. 

§  4.  This  part  of  speech  may  be  introduced  by  a  few  simple  ques- 
tions and  answsrs. 


16  ORAL    INSTRDCXION. 

Teacher.     "WTiat  part  of  speech  Is  horse  f 
Pupil.     A  noun. 
T.    Why? 

P.    Because  it  is  a  name. 

T.     Can  you  think  of  any  words  that  tell  what  the  horse  dots  t 
P.    Muns,  (calks,  etc. 
T.    Are  runs  and  walks  nouns  ? 
P.     They  are  not 
T.     Why  not? 

P.    Because  they  are  not  names. 
T.     Ai-e  they  adjectives  f 
P.     They  are  not. 
T.    "Why  not? 

P.     Because  they  do  not  qualify  or  define  any  thing. 
T.     Will  you  name  ad  many  words  as  you  can  recollect,  that  tell 
what  any  thing  does,  or  express  some  kind  of  action  ? 
P.     Speak,  read,  study,  sine/,  play,  etc. 

These  words  are  written  in  a  column  ou  the  board,  after  which 
the  questions  are  continued. 

T.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  sea  is  calm,"  does  the  word  is  express 
any  degree  of  action  ? 

P.    It  does  not. 

T.    Does  It  express  the  ieijig  or  existence  of  any  thing  ? 

P.     It  does. 

T.  Can  you  name  any  other  words  that  are  used  to  express  the 
being  or  existence  of  objects  ? 

P.    Am,  teas,  live,  etc. 

These  Avords  are  placed  under  the  column  already  conunenced 
on  the  boai-d,  and  the  pupils  are  informed  that  all  words  which  ex- 
press actio7i,  and  those  which  express  heing  or  existence,  are  called 
Verbs.  * 

A  number  of  sentences  are  next  placed  before  the  pupils,  from 
which  they  select  all  the  verbs,  writing  them  by  themselves  as  In 
previous  exercises. 

Model  VHI. 
Birds  fi^  in  the  air. —  TJie  eaiik  shook  and  trembled.  —  Boston  is  t/10 


OKAL    INSTRUCTION.  17 

capital  of  MassnrJnisetts.  — ^  /  icrote  a  IdCer  to  my  friend  last  weeJc^  and  re- 
ceived ail  answer  this  morning. 

'  Verbs. 

Fly 

Shook 

Trembled 

Is 

Wrote 

Received 

Other  sentences  are  now  given  to  the  learners,  from  which  they 
select  all  the  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verba ;  writing  them  in  separate 
oolnmns,  and  distingTiishiiin:  the  articles. 

Model  IX. 

Be  came  in  the  morning,  and  went  atcay  at  night.  —  Truth  never  fears 
examination.  —  Veniis  is  the  brightest  of  all  the  planets.  It  is  sometimes 
visible  at  mid-day. 


Nouns. 

Adjectives. 

Verbs 

Morning 

The 

Came 

Nitrht 

Went 

Truth 

The 

Fears 

Examination 

Briffhtest 

Is 

Venus 

All 

Is 

Planets 

The 

Mid-day 

tt;„:i,i„ 

Several  verbs  are  next  placed  before  the  learners,  and  they  are 
required  to  form  sentences  which  include  them.  See  Models  II 
and  VI. 

After  this,  the  pupils  write  sentences  containing  seV'iral  verbs  of 
their  own  choice;  and  distinguish  all  the  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
nouns. 

Model  X. 

ar        nar         n  v  n  v  n 

In  the  spring  the  farmer  ploughs  his  ground  and  sows  his  seed ;  in 
ar  n  n  c  n  ar        n 

the  summer  and  autumn  he  gathers  his  harvest;  and  in  the  winter  he 

V  n  V  n 

cuts  his  wood  and  threshes  his  grain. 

The  teacher  should  make  frequent  suggestions  and  explanations 
during  those  exercises.    It  is  highly  important  that  learners  become 

2* 


18  OKAL    INSTRUCTION. 

thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  verbs,  before  advancing 
to  consider  the  other  parts  of  si^eech. 


THE  PRONOUN. 

§  5.  Teacher.  In  the  sentence,  "  John  is  diligent,  and  he  will 
improve,"  for  what  name  does  the  word  he  stand  ? 

Pupil.    John. 

T.  Can  you  mention  any  other  names  for  which  he  is  sometimes 
used  ? 

P.     George,  Charles,  man,  loi/,*etc. 

T.     For  what  nouns  does  she  stand  ? 

P.     Jane,  Susan,  girl,  woman,  etc. 

T.  What  words  besides  he  and  she  are  used  in  the  place  of 
nouns  ? 

P.     Him,  her,  I,  toho,  etc. 

These  words  are  written  on  the  board,  under  the  title  of  Pro- 
nouns ;  and  the  pupils  are  informed  that  this  term  applies  to  all 
words  which  are  used  to  supply  the  place  of  nouns. 

Sentences  are  now  placed  befoi-e  the  learners,  from  which  they 
select  all  the  pronouns,  writing  them  in  a  column  by  themselves. 
See  IModcls  I  and  IV. 

Other  sentences  are  also  given  them,  from  which  they  select  all 
the  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  pronouns,  writing  them  in  columns 
as  before.     See  IModels  V  and  IX. 

After  this,  the  tencher  writes  several  pronouns  on  the  board,  and 
the  pupils  form  sentences  embracing  them.    See  Models  II  and  VI. 

They  then  write  sentences  including  a  number  of  pn  nouns  of 
their  own  choice. 

]\IODEL   XI. 

ar        n        f)  ar        n      pvo       v 

When  the  wind  blows  violently  among  the  trees,  they  bend,  and  almost 
V  pro        n  V  '  7idj        pro  v  ar 

break.     Though  their  roots  are  very  strong,  they  sometimes  yield  to  the 
n  ar       n  v  ar         n 

force  of  the  wind,  and  fall  to  the  ground. 

In  this  manner   the  pupils  secure  by  frequent  repetition  what 


ORAL    INSTRUCTION.  19 

thej  have  bufore  learned,  and  also  cultivate  habits  of  careful  com- 
parison and  discrimination,  by  examining  the  dill'erent  parts  of 
speech  in  connection. 


THE  ADVEEB. 

§  6.  Teacher.    In  the  sentence,  "  The  horse  runs  very  rapidly," 
what  word  tells  how  the  horse  runs  ? 

Pupil,     llapidlij. 

T.     "What  word,  then,  does  rapidly  modify  ? 

P.    Runs. 

T.    What  part  of  speech  is  runs  ? 

P.     A  verb. 

T.     Wliat  word  in  the  sentence  modifies  rapidly  ? 

P.     Very. 

T.  In  the  sentence,  "  He  is  an  exceedingly  diligent  scholar," 
what  word  modifies  diligent  ? 

P.     Exceedingly. 

T.    AVhat  part  of  speech  is  dlUyent  ? 

P.     An  adjective. 

T.  The  words  rapidly,  exceedvhv'y^  and  very,  ^ill  belong  to  the 
same  class,  and  are  called  Adverbs.  TR^apidly  modifies  a  verb  ;  ex- 
ceedingly modifies  an  adjective  ;  and  I'^^v  modifies  an  adverb.  Re- 
member, then,  that  all  words  whicu  mo<ii*V  verbs,  adjectives,  or  ad- 
verbs, belong  to  the  class  of  Adverbs. 

T.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  wor^^  +bHt  are  used  in  this 
manner  ? 

P.     Wisely,  here,  now,  when,  etc. 

These  words  are  written  in  another  colaii^u  o.^  Ap  board,  under 
the  title  of  Adverbs.  When  this  is  done,  sentence-s  ar^  ao-ain  placed 
before  the  pupils,  from  which  they  select  all  tue  adverbs.  (Models  1 
and  IV,)  and  others  fi'om  which  they  select  all  tae  nouus,  ->,4ieotives, 
verbs,  pronouns,  and  adverbs.     See  Models  V  and  iX. 

The  teacher  next  writes  a  number  of  adverbs  on  the  beaA-4-  a-nd 
the  learners  form  sentences  which  embrace  them.  Set  Mod^^i*  Xf 
and  YI. 


20  ORAL    INSTRUCTION. 

After  this,  chey  construct  sentences  containing  adverbs  selected 
bj  themselves,  and  distinguish  all  the  parts  of  speech  to  which  they 
have  attended,  as  in  former  exercises.  See  Models  VII,  X,  and 
XI. 


THE  PREPOSITION. 

§  'i'.  Teacher.  When  I  say,  "  ]\Iy  hand  is  over  the  table,"  what 
word  expresses  the  relation  of  my  hand  to  the  table  ? 

Pupil.     Over. 

T.  When  I  say,  "  My  hand  is  under  the  table,"  what  word  then 
expresses  the  relation  between  my  hand  and  the  table  ? 

P.     Under. 

T.  Mention  any  other  words  that  express  the  relation  of  differ, 
ent  things  to  each  other. 

P.     On,  between,  in,  above,  etc. 

These  words  are  written  in  a  column  on  the  board,  under  the 
word  Prepositions.  The  pupils  are  told,  at  the  same  time,  that 
every  word  which  is  used  to  express  the  relation  of  one  word  to 
another  belongs  to  this  class. 

Sentences  are  now  given  to  the  pupils,  from  which  they  select 
the  prepositions ;  and  others,  from  which  they  select  all  the  classes 
of  words  which  they  have  learned.     See  Models  VTII  and  IX. 

They  then  proceed  to  construct  sentences  containing  prepositions 
assigned  by  the  teacher ;  and  others  embracing  examples  of  their 
own  selection.     See  Models  VI  and  XI. 


THE  CONJUNCTION. 

§  8.  Teacher.  In  the  sentence,  "  I  saw  James  or  his  brother," 
what  word  connects  James  and  brother  ? 

Pupil.     Or. 

T.  What  word  connects  the  different  parts  or  clauses  of  the 
sentence,  "  James  went  to  school,  but  John  remained  at  home  ?  " 

P.     But. 

T.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  words  that  are  used  to  connect 
words,  or  clauses  of  a  sentence  ? 

P.     And,  nor,  if,  etc. 


ORAL    INSTR LOTION.  21 

These  words  are  -WTUien  on  the  board  in  a  column,  under  the 
word  Conjunctions;  and  the  pupils  are  told  that  all  words  used 
merely  as  connectives  beloncr  to  this  class. 

They  are  then  required  to  select  all  the  conjunctions  from  given 
sentences ;  and  afterwards  to  write  sentences  containing  conjunc- 
tions, and  others  embracing  all  the  parts  of  speech  which  they  have 
yet  learned.     See  previous  Models. 


THE  rXTEKJECTION. 

§  9.  Teacher.  In  the  expression,  "  Alas  !  I  am  undone,"  what 
word  is  used  merely  to  express  strong  feeling  or  emotion  ? 

Pupil.    Alas. 

T.  Can  you  name  any  other  words  that  are  used  to  express 
sti'ong  or  sudden  emotion  ? 

P.     Oh,  ah,  ho,  etc. 

These  words  are  written  In  a  column  on  the  board  ;  and  the  pu- 
pUs  are  told  that  they  form  a  class  called  Interjections.  They  are 
then  directed  to  write  a  few  sentences  containing  examples  of  thia 
part  of  speech. 


GENEKAL  EXERCISES  ON  ALL  THE  PARTS  OF 

SPEECH. 

§  1 0.  Ha^-ing  considered  the  several  classes  of  words  separately, 
the  learners  are  now  prepared  to  take  up  a  variety  of  selections  from 
their  reading  lessons,  and  classify  the  diflerent  words  as  they  occur ; 
writing  those  of  each  part  of  speech  in  a  column  by  themselves. 
See  Models  V  and  IX. 

They  should  also  devote  several  lessons  to  the  wi'iting  of  sen- 
tences which  embrace  copious  examples  of  aU  the  parts  of  speech ; 
placing  an  abbreviation  over  each  word,  to  indicate  the  class  to 
wliich  it  belongs.     See  Models  X  and  XI. 

AU  exercises  of  this  kind  should  be  made  progressive.  From 
simple  sentences,  the  learners  should  advance  to  the  construction 
of  those  which  are  more  difficult ;  from  difficult  sentences,  to  short 
compositions;  and  from  short  compositions,  to  those  of  greater 
lenuth. 


22  ORAL    INSTRUCTIOX. 

By  pursuing  the  course  here  described,  the  pupils  will  soon  be- 
ctune  familiar  with  the  nature  of  words  in  common  use,  and  be  able 
to  classify  them  with  facility. 


MORE  PARTICULAR  EXAI^IINATION  OF  THE  PARTS 

OF  SPEECH. 
§  11.  The  subdivisions  of  the  parts  of  speech,  and  their  most  im- 
portant offices,  may  now  be  brought  under  consideration. 

Nouns. 

§  12.  The  distinction  between  j^roper  and  common  nouns,  and  the 
distinctions  of  gender,  person,  Jiumber,  and  case,  may  be  severally 
introduced  by  fiuniliar  interrogative  exercises,  similar  to  those 
which  have  already  been  given  to  aid  in  distinguishing  the  parts  of 
speech. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  understand  the  nature  of  proper  and  com- 
mon nouns,  they  may  be  required  to  select  all  the  nouns  from  given 
sentences,  writing  the  proper  nouns  in  one  column  and  the  com- 
mon nouns  in  another.  They  should  then  construct  sentences 
which  embrace  examples  of  both  proper  and  common  nouns.  (See 
pre\-ious  Models.)  The  other  distinctions  of  nouns  may  be  illus- 
trated and  enforced  by  similar  exercises. 

Adjectives. 
§  13.  The  degrees  of  comparison  are  now  taken  up,  and  made  the 
basis  of  a  familiar  oral  exercise.     The  distinction  between  descrip- 
tive and  definitive  adjectives  should  also  receive  some  farther  atten- 
tion.    These  distinctions  are  next  exemplified  in  written  exercises. 

Verbs. 

§  14.  The  verb  is  the  most  difficult  and  important  of  all  the  parts 
of  speech,  and  the  teacher  should  make  special  effort  to  impart 
clear  and  correct  -tiews  respecting  its  principal  uses. 

The  assertion  or  affirmation  expressed  by  the  verb  may  now  be 
exjjh'iined  to  the  young  learner. 

The  division  of  verbs  into  regular  and  irregular,  and  into  transi- 
tive and  intransitive,  with  the  distinction  between  the  active  and  the 


ORAL    rXSTKLCTIOX.  23 

passive  voice,  should  be  introduced  and  illustrated  by  practical 
inductive  exercises. 

The  governmeF*;  of  the  objective  case  by  a  transitive  verb,  and 
the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  subject  or  nominative,  may  be  ex- 
plained in  this  connection. 

The  writing  of  illustrative  sentences,  on  the  part  of  the  pupils, 
follows  next  in  oi-der.     See  previous  Models. 

Il  is  generally  better  not  to  attempt  a  full  exhibition  of  the  modes 
and  tenses,  tiU.  pupils  have  advanced  farther  in  the  study.  They 
should,  however,  be  taught  at  this  period  to  distinguish  between 
declaratory,  conditional,  and  interrogative  sentences ;  and  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  time  denoted  by  a  verb  is  present,  past,  or  future. 

A  general  idea  of  participles,  and  of  auxiliary  and  compound 
verbs,  may  also  be  communicated  at  this  time. 

Each  of  these  subjects  should  be  explained  in  the  familiar,  con- 
versjitional  manner  already  described ;  and  accompanied  by  prac- 
tical exercises  in  the  construction  of  sentences. 

PiJOXouNS,  Pbepositioxs,  a><d  CoxjinscTioxs. 

§  15.  The  remaining  points  which  demand  special  consideration  in 
these  introductory  lessons,  are  the  division  of  pronouns  into  personal, 
relative,  and  interrogative,  together  with  the  person,  number,  and 
case  of  pronouns ;  the  connection  of  words  and  sentences  by  con- 
junctions; and  the  relation  expressed  by  prepositions.  These 
modifications,  like  those  before  presented,  should  be  introduced  in 
a  familiar  and  practical  manner,  and  made  the  basis  of  exercises  in 
the  construction  of  illustrative  sentences. 

§  16.  Before  closing  this  course  of  lessons,  the  learners  should pi*e- 
pare  several  exercises  in  composition,  exemplifying  all  the  impor- 
tant principles  to  which  they  haA'e  attended.  The  first  exercise 
may  embrace  the  ditferent  modifications  of  the  noun  ;  the  second, 
these  of  the  adjective ;  the  third,  those  of  the  verb ;  the  fourth, 
those  of  the  pronoun ;  and  the  fifth,  the  principles  relating  to  the 
remaining  parts  of  speech. 

Model  "XH, 

Modijications  of  the  Noun. 
I  am  highly  gratified,  my  dear  friend,  to  learn  of  your  safe  return  from 


24  OliAL    INSTBDCTION. 

Ohio.  My  brother  :uiJ  sister  expect  to  leave  Boston  in  about  two  weeks. 
They  will  spend  a  few  days  at  Spriiigticld,  in  coni]>[iance  with  your 
father's  kind  invitation.  —  I,  Thomas  Smith,  have  written  this  short  com- 
position. 

Common  Nouns.  —  Friend,  return,  brother,  sister,  weeks,  days,  compli- 
ance, father's,  invitation,  composition. 

Proper  Nouns.  —  Ohio,  Boston,  Springfield,  Tliomas  Smith. 

Noun  in  the  Masculine  Gender.  —  Brother,  father's,  Thomas  Smith. 

Noun  in  the  Feminine  Gender.  —  Sister. 

Nouns   in  the  Neuter   Gender.  —  Keturn,    Ohio,   Boston,  weeks,  days, 

Springfield,  compliance,  invitation,  composition. 
Noun  in  the  Common  Gender.  —  Friend. 

iVoMH  iM  the  First  Person.  —  Tliomas  Smith. 

Noun  in  llie  Second  Person.  —  Friend. 

Ahuns  in  tJie  Third  Pa;son.  —  Return,  Ohio,  brother,  sister,  Boston, 
•weeks,  days,  Springfield,  compliance,  father's,  invitation,  composi- 
tion. 

Nouns  in  the  Sin/jiUar  Nutnber. —  Friend,  return,  Ohio,  bioilier,  sister, 
Boston,  Springfield,  compliance,  father's,  invitation,  Thomas  Smith, 
composition. 

Nouns  in  the  Plural  Number.  —  AVeeks,  days. 

Nouns  in  the  Nominative  Case.  —  Brother,  sister,  Thomiis  Smith. 

Noun  in  the  Possessive  Case.  — Father's. 

Nou7is  in  the  Objective   Case. — Ecturn,   Ohio,  Boston,  weeks,  daj-^ 

Springfield,  compliance,  invitation,  composition. 
Noun  in  the  Case  IndependaU. — Friend. 

§  17.  After  the  pupils  have  in  this  manner  exemplified  the  varioua 
modifications  of  all  the  parts  of  speech,  they  should  be  required  to 
write  several  compositions  of  considerable  length,  and  parse  each 
word  by  itself.  Thus,  in  parsing  a  noun,  the  learner  should  tell 
why  it  is  a  noun ;  whether  it  is  proper  or  common,  and  why ;  its 
gender,  and  why ;  person,  and  why  ;  number,  and  why  ;  case,  and 
why.  If  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  he  should  point  out  the  verb 
of  which  it  is  the  subject ;  if  in  the  possessive,  the  noun  denot- 
ing the  object  pos.sessed ;  if  in  the  objective,  the  word  which  gov- 
erns it.  A  similar  coui'se  should  be  adopted  in  parsing  all  the  othei 
parts  of  speech. 


A 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAE. 


§  18.  Grammar  is  the  science  wliich  treats  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  language. 

English  Grammar  teaches  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
mg  the  English  Language  correctly. 

§  19.  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts  ;  —  Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  and  the  proper  method 
of  combining  them  to  form  sjllables  and  words. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classification  of  words,  their 
derivation,  and  their  various  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences,  accord- 
ing to  the  established  laws  of  speech. 

Prosody  treats  of  accent,  quantity,  and  the  laws  of 
versification. 


PART  I 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§  20.  Orthography  treats  of  letters,  and  the  proper 
method  of  combining  them  to  form  syllables  and  words. 

LETTERS. 
§  21.  A  letter  is  a  mark  or  character  used  to  represent 

an  elementary  sound  of  the  human  voice. 

Ttie  wor  1  Utter,  like  many  other  terms  used  in  orthography,  is  often 
applied  to  the  sound  represented,  as  well  as  the  written  cliaracter. 

The  letters  of  a  language,  taken  collectively,  are  called  its  Alpha- 

^\^hat  is  grammar?  What  does  English  grammar  teach?  How  is 
grammar  divided?  Of  what  does  Orthojjraphy  treat?  Etymology? 
Syntax  ?  Prosody  ?  What  is  a  letter  ?  WImI  are  the  letters  of  a  lan- 
(jVOfje  called? 


26  ORTHOGRAPHT. 

bet.     The  English  alphabet  consists  ©f  twenty-sis  leHers,  wMci) 
have  the  following  dilferent  forms  :  — 

Roman.  Italic.      Old  English.         Script. 

Capital.  Small.  Capital.  Small.     Capital.     SoiaU.        Capital.      Snjall.        Nanies. 


A 

a 

A 

a 

a 

a 

q4 

a 

A. 

B 

b 

B 

b 

B 

b 

^ 

/ 

Bee, 

i) 

c 

C 

€ 

(H 

i 

^ 

a 

See, 

D 

d 

D 

d 

IP 

\ 

^ 

^ 

Dee. 

E 

e 

E 

e 

€ 

e 

^ 

i 

E. 

F 

f 

F 

f 

J 

f 

5?- 

/ 

EfF. 

G 

S 

G 

g 

(6 

9 

^ 

/ 

Jee. 

H 

h 

H 

h 

C) 

\) 

^ 

/ 

Aitck 

[ 

i 

I 

i 

1 

• 

^ 

* 

I. 

J 

• 

J 

J 

J 

1 

« 

1 

/ 

J 

Jay. 

K 

k 

K 

h 

I 

k 

a^ 

i 

Kay, 

L 

1 

L 

I 

I 

I 

^ 

/ 

Ell. 

M 

m 

M 

rti 

ill 

m 

a& 

m 

Em, 

N 

n 

N 

n 

N 

n 

J? 

n 

En. 

O 

o 

0 

0 

© 

0 

0 

0 

O. 

P 

P 

P 

V 

}P 

P 

€P 

A 

Pee. 

Q 

q 

Q 

q 

^ 

q 

^ 

? 

Knei 

R 

r 

R 

r 

K 

r 

0^ 

e 

Ar. 

S' 

s 

s 

s 

S 

3 

s^ 

<> 

Ess. 

T 

t 

T 

t 

% 

t 

sr 

t 

Tee. 

U 

11 

U 

u 

H 

tt 

(^h 

u 

U. 

V 

V 

V 

V 

D 

0 

QJ 

V 

Vee. 

w 

w 

W 

w 

111 

to 

Off. 

tf 

Double-a 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

&3 

as 

Eks. 

Y 

y 

Y 

y 

13 

2 

9 

y 

Wv. 

Z 

z 

Z 

z 

^ 

J 

Q^ 

Kb 

Zee. 

CAPITALS    AND    ITALICS.  27 

6''and  v  were  formerly  considered  the  same  letter,  and  were  used  in- 
discriminately, the  one  for  the  other ;  as,  hone  for  haue,  and  chvrch  for 
church. 

The  sounds  of  i  and  J  were  both  originally  represented  by  the  letter  i; 
as,  lames  for  James. 

When  the  diphthongs  ce  and  ce  have  either  of  the  sounds  of  e,  the  let- 
ters are  united  in  printing. 

Examples:  —  iEgis,  diaeresis,  oesophagus,  antoeci. 


CAPITALS  a:nd  italics. 

§  22.  The  following  classes  of  words  should  commence 
(vith  capital  letters  :  — 

1.  The  first  word  of  a  sentence. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  fine  in  poetry. 

3.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation. 

Examples:  —  And  Nathan  said  unto  David,  "  Thou  art  the  man."— 
Remember  the  ancient  maxim,  "  Know  thyself." 

An  indirect  quotation  may  be  introduced  without  the  use  of  a  capital. 
Example:  —  It  is  recorded  of  him  who  ^^  spake  three  thousand  prov- 
erbs," that  "  his  songs  were  a  thousand  and  five." 

,   <  Words  used  as  names  of  the  Deity. 

Examples :  —  "  Our  Father,  who  art  in  Heaven."  —  "  Kemember 
now  thy  Creator,  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 

5.  Proper  names  and  titles  of  honor  or  distinction. 

Examples :  —  The  city  of  Boston ;  —  The  Honorable  Daniel  Webster ; 
Sir  ifatlhew  Hale ;  —  riiny  the  Younger. 

6.  Common  nouns  personified. 

Examples  :  —  "  If  Pain  comes  into  a  heart,  he  is  quickly  followed  by 
Pleasure ;  and  if  Pleasure  enters,  you  may  be  sure  that  Pain  is  uot 
far  off." — Addison. 

"  And  Discipline  at  length, 
O'eilooked  and  unemployed,  fell  sick  and  died. 
Then  Studj/  languished.  Emulation  slept, 
And  Vii-tue  fled."  —  Cowper. 

What  are  the  several  classes  of  words  which  rommence  with  capitals  ? 


m 


28  ORTHOGRA.PHT. 

7.  Every  important  word  in  a  phrase  used  as  a  title 
or  caption. 

Examples:  —  "  PresroWs  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico."  —  "  Vir- 
tue the  only  true  Source  of  Aobiliti/."  — '"  The  Anierican  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  ilissions."  —  "  The  New  York  Historical 
Society'''  —  "  The  American  Revolution." 

The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0  should  also  be 

written  in  capitals. 

Examples:  —  "  Must  /  endure  all  this  ?  "  — "  Come  forth,  0  ye  chil- 
dren of  gladness,  come !" 

Most  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names  should  commence 
with  capitals. 

Examples:  —  "A  Grecian  education  was  considered  necessary  to 
form  the  Roman  orator,  poet,  or  artist."  —  Whelpley.  "The 
Copemican  system  is  that  which  is  held  to  be  the  true  system  of 
the  world."  —  Olmsted. 

A  personal  pronoun  referring  to  the  Deity  is  sometimes  commenced 
with  a  capital. 

Examples :  —  "  All  that  we  possess  is  God's,  and  we  are  under  obliga- 
tion to  use  it  all  as  He  wills."  —  Wayland. 
"  "Will  He  not  hear  thee 
"WTio  the  young  ravens  heareth  from  their  nest  ? 
Will  He  not  guard  thy  rest  ?  "  —  Hemans. 

There  are  also  numerous  cases  in  which  words  may  commence  either 
«nth  capitals  or  small  lettere,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  writer. 

Short,  detached  pieces  of  writing,  are  often  composed  entirely  of  capi- 
tals. For  examples,  see  title-pages,  heads  of  chapters  and  sections,  mon- 
umental inscriptions,  cards,  etc. 

§  23 .  Italic  letters  are  those  v.hich  stand  inclining. 
(See  the  Alphabet,  p.  26.)  This  sentence  is  printed  in 
Italics. 

When  an  author  wishes  to  distinguish  any  particular 
■word  or  phrase,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  for  any  other 
purpose,  it  is  generally  printed  in  ItaUcs. 

[The  questions  and  directions  which  are  printed  in  Italics,  are  designed 
to  be  omitted  by  beginners.] 

Wliat  two  words  of  one  letter  are  always  written  and  printed  in  capi- 
tals ?  What  adjectives  usually  commence  with  capitals ?  What  aie  Italic 
letters  1    For  what  purpose  are  they  employed  * 


CAPITALS    AND    ITALICS.  29 

Etamples:  —  "If  we  regard  enunciation  and  pronunciation  as  the 
mechanical  part  of  elocution  ;  inflection,  emphasis,  and  pausing, 
may  be  designated  as  its  intellectual  part."  —  Hussell.  "  To  be  per- 
fectly polite,  one  must  have  great  presence  of  mind,  wth  a  delicate 
and  quick  sense  of  propriety."  —  Mrs.  Chapone. 

When  a  word  Is  used  merely  as  a  toord,  it  should  generally  be 
,»j  mled  in  Italics. 

Examples : — "  The  adjective  same  is  often  used  as  a  substitute."  — 
Webster.  - "  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  which  to  animals  and 
inanimate  things."  —  Murray. 

NA'ords  and  phrases  introduced  into  English  writings  from  foreign 
languages,  are  generally  expressed  in  Italics. 

Examples :  —  "  An  adjouniment  sine  die,  is  an  adjournment  without 
fixing  the  time  of  resuming  business." —  Webster''s  Diet.  "  The 
White  Pine  is,  par  excellence,  a  New  England  tree."  —  N.  A.  Review. 

Sentences  of  special  importance  are  often  printed  entirely  in  Italics. 

"When  a  particular  word,  phrjise,  or  sentence,  is  designed  to  be 
made  still  more  conspicuous  than  it  would  be  if  expressed  in  Italics, 
it  is  printed  in  capitals. 

Examples :  —  "  Observation  and  Experi.mext  constitute  the  basis 
of  the  science  of  ^Mechanics."  —  Olmsted.  "  To  the  numerous 
class  of  young  men  in  the  United  States,  who  are  mainly  depen- 
dent on  their  ot\ti  resources  for  knowledge,  or  respectability,  one 
of  the  most  important  counsels  of  wisdom  which  can  be  addressed, 
is,  Study  touk  own  chaeacteb  and  prospects."  —  B.  B. 
Edwards. 

When  a  word  or  phrase,  embraced  in  an  Italic  sentence,  is  to  be 

distinguished  from  the  rest,  it  is  generally  printed  in  Roman  letteis. 

If  it  is  particularly  important,  it  should  be  expressed  in  /apitals. 

Examples :  —  "  The  grand  clew  to  all  syntacticcd  parsing  is  the  sense." — 

G.  Broum.    "  Hydrostatics  is  that  branch  of  Natural  Philosophy 

which  treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  and  agencies  c/LiQUiDS."  — 

Olmsted.    "  To  find  the  surface  of  a  Regular  Solid."  —  Day- 

Select  examples.  Specify  the  several  sircumstances  which  require  the  use 
of  Italics.  How  is  a  word  or  phrase  rendered  still  vrwre  conspiciunis  than  it 
wmdd  be  if  expressed  in  Italics?  How  is  a  word  or  phrase  distinguished 
from  the  rest,  in  an  Italic  senter-^e  f 


30  ORTHOGRAPHT. 

In  the  common  EiigHsli  version  of  the  Scriptures,  Italics  are  Tised 
to  indicate  those  words  which  are  not  found  in  the  origin;d. 

Examples :  —  "  After  two  days  was  the  feast  of  tlie  passovcr ; "  —  in 
the  original,  "  After  two  days  was  the  passover."  "  Thci'C  arc  yet 
four  months,  and  then  cometh  the  harvest;"  —  in  the  oriy,inal, 
"  There  are  yet  four  montlis,  and  the  harvest  cometh." 

§  24.  In  writing,  it  is  customary  to  underline   such 
words  as  would  be  italicized  in  printing. 

Example. 
"  Q/l   cwe<i    no^   <tee?7t    Aoooit^/e,    even    a//ei    {Ae 

EXERCISES. 

[After  studying  attentively  the  rules  respecting  the  use  of  capitals  and 
Italics,  pupils  should  be  required  to  select  from  other  works  a  variety  of 
examples  to  which  they  respectively  apply.  The  following  directions 
will  serve  as  a  guide  in  performing  this  exercise.  Those  which  are 
printed  in  Italics,  are  designed  to  be  omitted  by  beginners.] 

§  25.  Point  out  examples  of  words  commencing  with  capitals  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence  ;  —  at  the  beginning  of  a  direct  quota- 
tion. Select  several  names  representing  the  Deity,  which  com- 
mence with  capitals;  —  several  examples  of  proper  names  and 
honorary  titles.  Examples  of  common  nouns  personified ;  —  of  im- 
portant loords  in  a  title  or  caption.  Examples  of  the  pronoun  /  and 
the  interjection  0.  Examples  of  adjectives  derived  from  proper 
names.  Examples  of  short  pieces  of  writing,  printed  entirety  in 
capitals. 

Point  out  examples  of  important  words  and  phrases,  printed  in 
Italics.  Examples  of  entire  sentences  in  Italics.  Examples  of 
words,  phrases,  and  sentences,  in  capitals.  Examples,  in  Italic  sen- 
tences, of  words,  and  phrases,  printed  in  capitals  or  small  Rojnnn 
letters.  Examples  of  words  used  merely  as  words.  Examples  of 
foreign  words  and  phrases  empAoyed  in  English  writings.  Examples 
of  Italic  words  in  the  Scriptures. 

For  what  purpose  are  Italics  employed  in  our  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ?  Select  e-xamples.  How  are  important  words  and  phrases  distin 
fished  in  writing  ? 


VOWELS   AKD    COKSONANTS.  31 

TVrice  a  sentence  containmg  some  prominent  vcord  or  phrase^  atul 
distlnguisli  xtfrom  the  rest  hy  underlining  iu 


VOWELS  AND  COXSOXAXTS. 

§  26.  The  most  general  division  of  letters  is  int:>  voweh 
and  consofiants. 

A  vowel*  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  free  and  unin- 
terrupted sound  of  the  human  voice.  The  vowels  are  a, 
€,  i,  0,  u,  and  sometimes  zv  and  ^. 

A  consonantj  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  sound  that 
is  materially  modified  by  some  interruption  during  its  pas- 
sage through  the  organs  of  speech. 

The  consonants  are  b,  c,  d,  f,  g,  j,  Jc,  I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  r, 
8,  t,  V,  X,  z,  and  sometimes  w  and  t/.  M,  which  is  a  sim- 
ple breathing,  is  also  classed  with  the  consonants.  J 

W^hat  is  the  most  general  division  of  letters  t  What  is  a  vowel  1 
Enumerate  the  vowels.  What  is  a  consonant  ?  Enumerate  the  con- 
sonants. 

*  "  A  vo^-el  is  an  utterance  of  the  voice  receiving  its  peculiar  character 
from  the  posttio7t  of  the  organs  ;  and  a  consonant  is  an  action  of  the  organs 
of  speech,  accompanied  by  breath  or  voice."  —  Smart. 

"  A  vowel  is  an  elemental  sound  which  may  be  formed  without  bringing 
the  articulating  organs  into  contact  with  any  part  of  the  mouth.  A  conso- 
nant is  an  elemental  sound  which  cannot  be  formed  but  by  some  contact 
between  the  parts  of  the  mouth."  —  Day.  See  also  '\Valker'"s  Principles  of 
English  Pronunciation,  Webster's  Dictionary,  and  Wright's  Orthography. 

t  A  consonant  has  commonly  been  defined  "  a  letter  which  cannot  be 
perfectly  sounded  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel ; "  but  this  seems  not  to  be 
the  true"  idea  of  this  class  of  letters.  In  pronouncing  a  svllable  commenc- 
ing with  a  consonant,  a  distinct  sound  is  always  uttered  before  tlie  vowel 
sound  is  commenced ;  and  we  have  many  syllables  in  which  the  vowel 
though  written,  is  not  heard  at  all  in  pronunciation,  as  in  the  words  taken, 
biird^med,  which  are  pronoxmced  taJc-n,  burd-nd.  There  are  instances,  also, 
in  wliich  a  consonant  is  sounded  as  a  distinct  syllable,  without  the  use  even 
01  a  written  vowel,  as  in  the  words  chus-m,  rliyth-m.     See  Fowler. 

The  etjTuology  of  the  term  coyisonant  {sowiding  u-tth)  setms  to  have 
misled  many  grammarians,  and  thus  aided  in  perpetuating  the  error  here 
alluded  to. 

X  "  The  claims  of  h  to  be  regarded  as  a  letter  have  been  denied  by  many 


32  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TT  is  a  consonant  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  vowel  in  the  uame 
syllable ;  as  in  win,  swiff,  thwart. 

W  is  usually  considered  as  a  vowel,  when  it  follows  another 
vowel  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  new,  hoiv. 

y  is  a  consonant  when  it  begins  a  syllable,  and  is  immediately 
followed  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  yet,  youth. 

In  all  other  cases,  y  is  a.  vowel ;  as  in  very,  rhyme,  beryl. 

§  27.  Vowel  sounds  are  called  open  or  close,  according  to  the  rela- 
tive size  of  the  opening  through  which  the  voice  passes  in  forming 
them.  Thus,  a  in  father,  and  o  in  nor,  are  called  open  sounds,  be- 
cause they  are  formed  by  a  wide  opening  of  the  organs  of  s])eech ; 
while  e  in  me,  and  u  in  rule,  are  called  close  sounds,  because  the 
organs  are  nearly  closed  in  uttering  them. 

§  28.  Two  vowels  combined  in  tlie  same  syllable,  are 
called  a  diphthong ;  as  in  coil. 

A  diphthong  in  which  both  vowels  are  sounded,  is  called  a  proper 
diphthong  ;  as  in  oil,  boy. 

A  diphthong  in  which  only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded,  is  call- 
ed an  improper  diphthong,  or  digraph  ;  as  in  rain,  eat,  believe. 

§  29.  Three  vowels  combined  in  the  same  syllable,  are 
called  a  triphthong  ;  as  in  eye^  awe,  lieu,  beauty. 

§  30.  Those  consonant  sounds  which  are  formed  by  the  vocal 
organs,  during  the  passage  of  a  mere  breathing,  are  called  aspirates. 
They  are  represented  by  p  in  map,  t  in  hut,  k  in  book,  f  in  fine, 

s  in  see,  th  in  thin,  sh  in  ash,  ch  in  church,  and  h  in  hero. 

. • , 

When  is  w  a  consonant  ?  Examples.  When  a  vowel  ?  Examples 
When  is  J  a  consonant  ?  Examples.  When  a  vowel.  Examples.  Exj^lain 
the  terms  open  and  close,  as  applied  to  vowels.  Define  a  diphthong.  Ex 
amples.  A  proper  diphthong.  Examples.  An  improper  diphthong.  Exam- 
ples. A  triphthong.  Examples.  What  consonants  are  called  aspirates  f 
Enumerate  them. 

grammarians ;  and  certainly,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  sound  of  this 
letter  is  produced  by  a  mere  emission  of  the  breath,  without  any  c.onfomi 
ation  of  the  organs  of  speech,  this  opinion  woi;ld  seem  Tteli-fouiided. 
There  are  others,  however,  who  insist  that  there  is  no  feature  in  the 
sound  or  qualities  of  this  letter,  which  it  does  not  possess  in  common  with 
some  other  consonants ;  and  consequently  any  attempt  to  invalidate  its 
claim  to  *iie  distinction,  militates  equally  against  them  ''  —  B'J)  de'j  Eiw-. 


VOWELS.  33 

§31.  The  cognate  or  corresponding  sounds,  which  arc  respeo- 
b'vely  formed  by  i  similar  dit^position  of  the  organs,  during  the  pas- 
s.ige  of  the  voice,  are  called  vocal  consonants.  They  are  represented 
by  b  in  but,  d  in  did,  g  in  go,  v  in  vain,  z  h\  zero,  th  in  Oiai,  z  in 
azi.re,  and  j  in  just.  In  a  natural  whisper,  these  sounds  cannot,  of 
themselves,  be  readily  distinguished  from  tlie  corresponding  aspi- 
rates.    //  has  no  cognate. 

rVocal         b,     d,    g,     v,     z,*     th,1[    2,§    J. 
Cognates,  <  :::::::: 

( Aspirate    p,     t,     k,    f,     s,       ih,X    s7i,    ch. 

§  32.  Tlie  remaining  sounds,  77i  in  ma7i,  n  in  no,  tig  in  sing,  I  in 
look,  r  in  race,  lo  in  tvorld,  and  y  in  youth,  though  produced  by  the 
voice,  may  also  be  distinctly  uttered  in  a  whisper.  They  are  hence 
called  intermediate  or  neutral  consonants.  In  forming  the  first  three 
of  these,  —  m,  n,  and  ng,  —  the  voice  is  made  to  pass  principally 
through  the  nose,  and  they  are  on  this  account  called  nasal  con- 
sonants. 

WORDS  A^D  SYLLABLES. 

§  33.  A  icord  is  a  letter  or  combination  of  letters,  used 
as  the  sign  of  an  idea ;  as,  /,  mayi,  science^  extemporaneous. 

§  34.  A  syllable  is  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word,  which  ia 
pronounced  bj  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  art^  ar^ 
tic-u-la-tion. 

Most  syllables  are  written  with  at  least  one  vowel ;  but  in  many 
words  the  vowel  of  the  final  syllable  is  sUent,  as  in  sea-son,  whis-ile, 
hap-pened. 

Wltat  are  vocal  consonants  ?  Enumerate  them.  What  aspirate  is  the 
cognate  of  hi — o/d? — o/g  in  go? — o/v? — of  z  in  zero? — of  th  in  that? 
— ofz  in  azure? — of  j  in  just?  Which  of  the  aspirates  has  no  cognate  ? 
What  are  intermediate  or  neutral  consonants  f  Enumerate  them.  Which 
are  the  nasal  consonants ?  Why  so  calltd?  "Wliat  is  a  word?  Examples. 
What  is  a  sj'llable?  Examples.  Nam£  a  syllable  which  has  no  vowel 
sound  f 


*  Z'lu  \'.ro.         \  Th  u  tliat.         \  Th'm  thin.  §  ^in  azxire 

2* 


34  DIVISION    OF    WORDS    INTO    SYLLABLES. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monos^yllahle  ;  one  of  two  syl- 
lables, a  dissyllable  ;  one  of  three,  a  trisyllable ;  and  one  of  more 
than  three,  sl  polysyllable  ;  as,  in,  intend,  intention,  intentionally, 

§35.  Words  are  dmded  into  two  general  classes; — jirimitive 
And  derivative. 

A  primitive  or  radical  word  is  one  that  is  not  derived  from  any 
jther  word  or  woi-ds  in  the  language ;  as,  Mil,  tree,  kind,  consider. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  fi'om  some  primitive  word 
or  words  in  the  language ;  as,  hillock,  kindness,  inconsiderate. 

§  36.  Words  are  also  divided  into  two  other  classes,  called  simple 
and  compound. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  by  uniting  other  words ; 
as,  Jiand,  fortune. 

A  compound  word  Is  one  that  is  formed  by  joining  two  or  more 
simple  words,  without  materiiilly  modifying  either ;  as,  hook-seller^ 
rail-road,  comma n-jjlace  book. 

Division  of  Wo'\U  into  Syllables. 

§87.  As  a  general  j^rinclple,  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  sylla- 
bles of  a  word  are  those  divisions  which  are  made  in  a  correct  pro- 
nunciation of  it.     See  §  275,  Note. 

The  following  are  perhaps  the  only  definite  rules  that  can  be 
given  on  this  subject :  — 

1.  Two  consonants  forming  but  one  sound,  as  ng,  ch,  ih,  sh,  ph, 
will,  are  never  separated.  Thus,  we  wi*ite  church-es,  wor-thy,  feath- 
er, ring-ing,  a-while. 

2.  Compound  words  are  commonly  separated  into  the  simple 
words  of  which  they  are  composed ;  as,  care-less,  bee-hive,  rail-road. 

3.  In  expressing  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  of  regular 
verbs,  the  tennination  ed,  though  not  always  pronounced  separately, 
is  regarded  in  writing  as  a  distinct  syllable ;  as,  lov-ed,  burn-ed. 
See  §  86,   Rem.  2. 


What  is  a  word  of  one  syllable  called  ?  —  of  two  ?  —  of  three  ?  —  of  more 
than  three  ?  Into  what  two  general  claNSCs  are  words  divided  ?  What  is  a 
primitive  word?  Examples.  A  derivative  icord?  Examples.  A  simple 
word?  Examples.  A  comporind  word?  Examples.  'H'hal  arc  the  ^i/llahlea 
cf  a  uvid?  What  three  rules  are  qiven  respecting  the  division  of  w^/rds  into 
tiillablc-ii  f 


PART  II. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

§  38.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification  of  words, 
their  derivation,  and  their  various  modifications. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

§  39.  The  diflferent  classes  into  -which  words  are  divided 
are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

There  are  in  English  eiglit*  parts  of  speech ;  namely, 
the  Noun,  the  Adjective,^  the  Pronoun^  the  Verh^  the 
Adverb,  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  Inter- 
jection. 

A  Noun  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  name  of  an  ob- 
ject ;  as,  America,  man,  hook,  ivisdom. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  to 
qualify  or  define  its  meaning  ;  as,  Iwnest  men ;  ten  days  ; 
this  book. 

A  Proywun  is  a  word  used  to  supply  the  place  of  a 

Of  what  docs  Etymology  treat  ?  What  are  the  different  clasics  of 
words  called  ?  Enumerate  the  parts  of  speech.  What  is  a  noun  1  Ex 
amplcs.    An  adjective  ?     Examples.     A  pronoun  ?     Examples. 

*"I  adopt  the  usual  distribution  of  words  into  eight  classes,  becanso,  if 
»ny  number,  in  a  thing  so  arbitrary,  must  be  fixed  upon,  this  seems  to  be 
a.>i  compreliensive  and  distinct  as  any."  —  Priestley. 

The  division  of  words  into  eight  classes  is  also  adopted  by  Butler,  Frazee 
Swett,  Fowle,  E.  Oliver,  Lindsay,  Hort,  M'CuUoch,  Connon,  D'Orsey,  Wil- 
lard,  Kobbius,    S.  Barrett,   Fowler,  Eames,    Whiting,  Weld,  Greene,  aud 
oliiers. 

t  For  note  respecting  liie  articles,  see  p.  53. 


i 


p 


36  ETYMOLOGY. 

noun ;  as,  "  When  Caesar  had  conquered  Gaul,  he  turned 
his  arms  against  his  country." 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  assertion  or  affir- 
mation; as,  I  am;  I  love;  I  am  loved. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  sense  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb ;  as,  "  He  is  not 
understood  ;  "  —  "A  remarkably  diligent  boy ;  " —  "  She 
reads  very  correctlyP 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  relation 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun  depending  upon  it,  to  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  went  from  Boston  to  Al- 
bany ;  "  —  "  Washington  was  the  father  of  his  country." 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  that  is  used  to  connect  words 
or  sentences  ;  as,  "  Seven  and  five  are  twelve  ; "  — 
"  Straws  swim  on  the  surface  ;  hut  pearls  lie  at  the  hot 
tom." 

An  Interjection  is  an  exclamatory  word,  used  merely  to 
express  some  passion  or  emotion;  as,  Oh!  ah!  alas! 


THE    NOUN. 

§  40.  A  Noun  *  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  name  of 
an  object ;  as,  America^  man,  booh,  wisdom. 

This  part  of  speech  not  only  embraces  the  names  of 
material  objects,  as  horse,  tree,  carriage;  but  it  also  in 
eludes  the  name  of  every  thing  that  can  be  conceived  to 
exist,  as  hope,  virtue,  strength. 

What  is  a  verb  ?  Examples.  An  adverb  ?  Examples.  A  preposi- 
tion ?  Examples.  A  conjunction  ?  Examples.  An  interjection  ?  Ex- 
amples. What  is  a  noun  ?  Examples.  What  nnmes,  besides  those  of 
material  objects,  are  embraced  under  this  part  of  speech  ?     Examples. 

*  Noun  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  nomeii,  which  signifies  a  name. 


NOUNS  37 

§  41.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds  ;  — proper  and  common. 

1.  Kp)roper  noun  is  a  name  used  to  distinguish  an  irir 
dividual  object  from  others  of  the  same  class  ;  as,  G-eorge, 
Boston,  Ontario,  Vesuvius,  January. 

Eem.  —  The  particular  names  of  nations,  ranges  of  mountains, 
and  groups  of  Lilands,  are  generally  classed  with  proper  nouns ;  as, 
The  Jeivs,  The  Andes,  The  Azores. 

Observation.  —  The  pupil  should  be  careful  to  discriminate 
between  a  proper  name  used  to  distinguish  an  individual  object, 
and  the  same  word  used  to  denote  a  class  or  species.  Thus,  when 
we  SUA',  "  The  Prussians  are  distinguished  for  their  svstem  of  irQQ 
schools,"  Prussians  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  used  to  distin- 
guish &  particular  nation  from  all  other  nations;  but,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  I  saw  several  Prussians  in  Paris,"  the  word  Prussians  be- 
comes a  common  noun,  because  it  may  be  applied  in  the  same  sense 
to  any  other  portion  of  the  whole  class  of  individuals  composing  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia.  So  also  in  the  expression,  "  He  is  the  Cicero 
of  his  age,"  the  word  Cicero  is  employed  to  denote  a  class,  and  is 
applicable  in  this  sense  to  other  individuals  in  common  with  the 
celebrated  Roman  orator. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  a  name  that  may  be  applied  to 
any  one  of  a  whole  class  of  objects  ;  as,  desk,  house,  totcn, 
scholar. 

§  42.  Common  nouns  embrace  also  the  partlculai*  classes,  termed 
abstract,  participial,  and  collective. 

1.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  considered  apart 
from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  hardness,  strength,  wisdom, 
benevolence.  Thus,  in  the  phrase,  beautifid  flower,  the  quality  de- 
hoted  by  the  word  beautiful,  when  considered  as  separated  from  the 
object  ^OMjer,  is  expressed  by  the  abstract  noun  beauty. 


Into  what  classes  arc  nouns  divided  1  "Wliat  is  a  proper  noun  ?  Ex- 
amples. Wlial  of  the  particular  nainos  of  nations,  groups  of  islands,  ftc.  ? 
E.ramj)lcs.  Shoio  how  the  same  icord  may  be  eithrr  a  proper  or  a  common 
noun.  Examples,  ■^^^lat  is  a  common  noun  ?  Kxamples.  Wliat  jiar- 
licular  classes  are  embraced  itnda'  common  nouns  ?  Wluit  is  an  uhsiracl  i<wn  1 
Illustrate.     Ejeamples. 


38  ETYJIOLOOr. 

2.  A  particip^l  noun  Is  a  word  that  has  the  form  of  a  pai-ticiple, 
and  performs  the  office  of  a  noun  ;  as,  "  They  could  not  avoid  sub- 

'  mitting  to  this  influence." 

Rem. — There  are  a  few  words  ending  in  ing,  as  morning^  evening,  which 
are  not  embraced  in  this  class,  since  they  are  not  derived  from  verbs. 

3.  A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  a  name  that  denotes 
a  collection  of  many  individuals ;  as,  school,  flock,  ■people,  assembly. 

EXERCISES. 
§  43.  Ship,  Loudon,  army,  Alps,  virtue,  industry,  Pales- 
tine, mountain,  field,  pleasm-e,  France,  assembly. 

Which  of  the  foregoing  nouns  arc  common  ?  "Which  proper  1  Which 
abstract  t      Which  collective  ? 

"  Paris  is  the  metropolis  of  France."  —  "  In  the  days  of 
youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure  as  their  chief 
good."  —  "  Industry  is  the  law  of  our  being.  It  is  the  de- 
mand of  nature,  of  reason,  and  of  God."  —  "  This  wa5  said 
in  the  hearing  of  the  witness." 

Mention  the  nouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences.  Which  arc  common  '' 
Which  proper  ?  }Vhich  are  abstract  ?  Which  ]xirticipial  ?  Which  coliec 
five  f 

Write  a  sentence  containing  both  a  common  and  a  proper  noun.  One 
containing  an  abstract  noun.;  —  a  participial  noun  ;  —  a  collective  noun. 

PROPERTIES. 

§  44.  The  properties  belonging  to  nouns  are  gender, 
person,  number,  and  case. 

GENDER. 
§  45.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 
There  are  four  *  genders  ;  — »•  the  masculine,  the  femi- 
nine, the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

What  is  a  participial  noun  ?  Examples.  What  is  a  collective  noun  9 
Examples.  What  properties  have  nouns  ?  What  is  gender  1  What  are 
the  different  genders  1 

♦  Smce  there  are  but  two  sexes,  some  critics  have  couteuded  that  we 


NOUNS.  39 

1    Nouns  that  denote  males,  are  of  the  masoulifie  (/e?i- 
der  ;  as,  man,  brother,  king,  father. 

2.  Nouns  that  denote  females,  are  of  'Cue  feminine  gen- 
der ;  as,  ivoman,  sister,  queen,  mother. 

3.  Noims  that  are  applicable  alike  to  both  sexes,  are  of 
the  common  gender  ;  &s,  parent,  child,  friend. 

4.  Nouns  that  denote  objects  neither  male  nor  female, 
are  of  the  neuter  gender  ;  as,  rocJc,  wind,  paper,  hnoivledge. 

Rem.  1.  —  Nouns  of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender  are  frequently 
used  in  a  general  sense,  including  both  sexes;  as,  "And  with  thee  \vill  1 
bi-eak  in  pieces  the  horse  and  his  rider." — Jcr.  51:21.  "  Go  to  the  a«i, 
thou  sluggard;  consider  Aer  ways, and  be  wise." — Prov.  6:  6. 

Rem.  2.  —  When  we  speak  of  males  and  females  of  our  own  species 
without  regard  to  sex,  we  generally  em];loy  a  term  in  tlie  masculine  gen- 
der ;  as, "  Man  is  mortal ; "  —  "  The  authors  and  poets  of  the  age." 

Rem.  3. —  In  speaking  of  young  children,  and  of  animate  objects 
"U'hose  sex  is  unknown,  we  often  employ  the  neuter  pronoun  it ;  as,  "  The 
child  was  well  when  I  saw  jY;"  —  "He  caught  the  bird,  but  it  soon  es- 
caped from  him." 

Rem.  4.  —  In  the  English  language,  the  gender  of  nouns  follows  the 
order  of  nature;  but  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  tongues,  the  gram- 
matical geuders  are  frequently  assigned  mthout  regard  to  sex ;  while 
in  the  French,  Italian,  etc.,  which  ha\  e  no  ricuter  gender,  every  objtftt  is, 
of  necessity,  regarded  as  grammatically  masculine  or  feminine. 

Rem.  5.  —  By  a  figure  of  speech  called  Personification^  gender  is 
sometimes  attributed  to  objects  without  sex.  Thus,  the  sun,  time,  death, 
etc.,  are  usualh'  considered  as  masculine ;  and  the  earth,  a  ship,  virtue,  etc., 
are  commonly  characterized  as  feminine. 

Ob3.  1.  —  This  figurative  mode  of  expression,  by  which  we  give  life 

"What  nouns  are  of  the  masculine  gender?  Examples.  What  of  the 
feminine  1  Examples.  What  of  the  common  f  Examples.  What  of 
the  neuter  1    Examples. 

have  properly  no  more  than  two  genders.  This  reasoning  would  be  satis- 
factory if  the  word  gender  were  synonymous  with  sex  ;  but  the  best  gram- 
marians have  uniformly  eTiv)loyed  it  in  a  less  restricted  sense,  to  express 
"  distinction  in  regard  to  sex."  As  some  names  denote  males,  some  fe- 
males, some  objects  of  either  sex,  and  some  objects  of  no  sex,  it  is  ob- 
vious that,  in  regard  to  sex,  there  must  be  four  distinct  classes  of  nouns. 
In  designatiiig  these  classes,  grammarians  have  found  it  convenie;it  to 
employ  the  terms  viascniine,  feminine,  common,  ktvX  neuter  gender.  See 
Frazee,  Goldsbury,  Hall,  R.  C.  Smith,  Parker  and  Fox,  Pickett,  Good- 
enow,  Fowle,  Pafkhurst,  Sanborn,  Willard,  Webber,  Perley,  Felch,  Bar- 
rett, 0.  Adams,  Cooper,  Grunvilk-,  Benll,  Booth,  Crane,  Pinuoek,  Smiirt, 
Butcliffe,  Weld,  Fowler,  Piuueo,  Munij,'aLi,  Goodwin,  and  I'nSacy. 


40 


ETYMOLOGY. 


and  sex  to  things  inanimate,  contributes  greatly  to  the  force  and  beauty 
of  our  language,  and  renders  it,  in  this  rcsi)ect,  superior  to  the  polished 
languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Obs.  2.  —  No  fixed  rule  can  he  given  to  determine,  in  all  cases,  which 
gender  should  be  assigned  to  inanimate  objects  personified.  Those  wliich 
are  distinguished  for  masculine  qualities,  as  energy,  boldness,  or  strength, 
are  generally  regarded  as  masculine;  and  those  which  are  distinguished 
for  feminine  qualities,  as  beauty,  mildness,  or  timidity,  are  generally 
characterized  as  feminine.  Abstract  nouns,  and  the  names  of  ships,  cities, 
and  countries,  are  usually  considered  as  feminine. 

Examples: — "  They  arrived  too  late  to  save  the  ship ;  for  the  violent 
cuiTent  had  set  her  more  and  more  upon  the  bank." — Irving. 

"  Statesmen  scoifcd  at  Virtue,  and  she  avenged  herself  by  bringmg 
their  counsels  to  nought."  —  Bancroft. 

^'^  Earth,  with  /i6r  thousand  voices,  praises  God." —  Coleridge. 

"Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound, 
Save  his  own  dashing."  —  Bryant. 

"  The  wiic 
Shall  send  ^(5  roots  abroad  and  pierce  thy  mould." — Ibid. 

"  And  see  where  surly  Winter  passes  off, 
Far  to  the  north,  and  calls  his  ruffian  blasts."  —  Thomson. 

§  4G.  The  distinction  between  males  and  females  is  expressed  in 

three  different  ways. 

1.  By  the  use  of  different  words :  — 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Beau 

helle 

Lad 

lass 

Boy 

girl 

Landlord 

landlady 

Brother 

sister 

Lord 

lady 

Buck 

doe 

Male 

fcniale 

Drake 

duck 

Man 

woman  ■ 

Earl 

countess 

Master 

mistress 

Father 

mother 

Master 

miss 

Friar  or  monk 

nun 

Nephew 

niece 

Gander 

goose 

Papa 

mamma 

Gentleman 

lady 

Son 

daughter 

Hart 

roe 

Stag 

hind 

Horse 

mare 

Uncle 

aunt 

Husband 

wife 

Wizard 

witch 

King 

queen 

2.  By  a  difference  of  termination 

1 :  — 

Ulasculi'ne. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Abbot 

abbess 

Adulterer 

ndiiltorcss 

Actoi 

actress 

Ambassador 

ambas^^adress 

Administrator 

administratrix 

Arbiter 

ar!)itress 

In  what  three  ways  is  the  distinction  between  nudes  and  fnnal/'.s  expressed  f 
Examples  of  each. 


Au  hor 

authoress 

Baron 

Inu-oness 

Bridegrooiii 

bride 

Bencfiictor 

benefactress 

Caterer 

cateress 

Chanter 

cliaii  tress 

Coiiductoi 

conductress 

Count 

countess 

Czar 

czarina 

Paujiliiii 

dauphiness 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Don 

donna 

Duke 

duchess 

Emperor 

empress 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

Executor 

executrix 

Giant 

giantess 

Governor 

governess 

Heir 

heiress 

Hero 

heroine 

Hunter 

huntress 

Host 

hostess 

Instructor 

instructress 

Jew 

Jewess 

Landgrave 

landgravine 

Dion 

lioness 

Marquis 

marchioness 

Margrave 

margravine 

Negro 

negrcss 

Patron 

patroness 

Peer 

peeress 

Poet 

poetess 

Prior 

prioress 

Prophet 

])rophetess 

Protector 

protectress 

Priest 

priestess 

Prince 

princess 

Shepherd 

shepherdess 

Songster 

songstress 

Sorcerer 

sorceress      [tana 

Sultan 

sultaness  or  sul- 

Tailor 

tailoress 

Testator 

testatrix 

Tiger 

tigress 

Tutor 

tutoress 

Viscount 

viscountess 

Votary 

votaress 

Widower 

widow 

3.  By  prefixing  another  Avord  :  — 
Masculine.  Feminine.  Masculine.  Feminine. 

Jl/a«-servant  ww/tZ-servant  jE7e-goat  sAe-goat 

il/a/e-child  /e?Ha/e-child 

Some  words  are  used  only  in  the  feminine ;  as,  Amazon,  brunette,  dow- 
ager, shrew,  syren,  virago. 

PERSON. 

§  47.  Person  J  in  grammar,  is  that  prcrpertj  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  speaker,  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  and 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

Nouns  have  three   persons  ;  —  the  first,  the    second, 
f  nd  the  tJdrd. 

1.  The /rs«  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  as,  "  The  sal- 
utation of  me,  Paul,  with  mine  own  hand." 

2.  The  second  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken 

What  is  person  1     Name  the  persons.     AVTiat  does  tJie  first  person 
denote'?    Examples.    Tlie  second'?    Examples. 


42  ETTMOr  0G1, 

to  ;  as,  "  These  are  thy  glorious  works,  Parent  of  good ;" 
"  Come,  gentle  Spring^ 

3.  The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of;  as,  "  Dependence  and  obedience  belong  to  youth.^' 

l^EM.  —  Tlie  third  person  is  occasionally  employed  for  the  first  or  sec- 
ond. Thus,  Solomon,  addressing  the  De'ity,  says  of  himself,  "  Thy  ser- 
vo})/  is  in  the  midst  of  thy  people,  which  thou  hast  chosen."  So  also, 
Moses,  in  narrating  the  events  of  his  own  life,  sjjcaks  of  himself  ju«t  as 
he  woidd  speak  of  any  other  person.  In  the  following  examjile.  the  third 
person  is  employed  for  the  second  :  —  "And  Jonathan  spake  good  of  Da- 
vid unto  Saul  his  father,  and  said  unto  him,  Let  not  the  king  sin  agains*. 
his  sen^ant,  against  David." 


EXERCISES. 

§  48.  Mention  the  gender  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Bell,  uncle,  cherry,  girl,  neighbor,  sister,  tree,  rose,  grass. 

Mention  three  nouns  in  the  masculhie  gender;  —  three  in  tlie  fenii- 
nine;  —  three  in  the  common ;  —  three  in  the  neuter.  Give  an  example 
of  a  noun  in  the  first  person ;  —  in  the  second  ;  —  in  the  third. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  noun  in  the  masculine  gender;  —  in  the 
feminine ;  —  in  the  common ;  —  in  the  neuter.  One  containing  a  noun  in 
the  first  person  ;  —  in  the  second ;  —  in  the  third. 


NUMB  Ell. 

§  49.  Number  is  the  distinction  of  one  from  more  than 
one. 

Nouns  have  two  numbers ;  —  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

1.  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object;  as, 
dag,  book,  volume. 

2.  The  plural  number  denotes  more  objects  than  one ; 
as,  dags,  books,  volumes. 

What  does  the  third  person  denote  ?  Examples.  What  is  number  1 
What  numbers  have  nouns  "?  Wliat  does  the  singular  numlwr  denote  1 
Examples.    What  docs  the  plural  number  denote  ?    Examples. 


NOUNS.  43 

§  50.  The  plural  of  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  adding  5  or  e.i 
to  the  singular. 

1.  Words  ending  in  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  the  sound  of 
s,  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  only ;  as,  herd,  herds ;  tree,  trees. 

2.  Words  ending  in  a  sound  which  will  not  unite  with  the  sounu 
of   s,  form    the   plural  by  adding  es ;  us,  fox,  Jhxes ;  lash,  lashes. 

TJkm.  1.  —  But  woiils  ending  in  silent  e,  whose  laot  sound  will  not  com- 
bine witli  the  sound  of  s,  add  s  only  for  the  plural ;  as,  rose,  roses  ;  voice 
voices. 

Rkm.  2.  —  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  the 
pluial  by  the  addition  of  es;  as,  cargo,  cargoes ;  hero,  heroes;  but  the  fol- 
lowing nouns  arc  commonly  written  in  the  plural  with  s  only  :  —  canto, 
ffrotto,  junto,  memento,  portico,  quarto,  octavo,  solo,  two,  tyro,  zero.  There 
are  also  a  few  others,  with  respect  to  which,  usage  is  not  unifonn. 

Rem.  3. —  Several  nouns  ending  in  yor  fe,  form  the  plural  by  substi- 
tuting ves,  for  the  termination  in  the  singular;  as,  loaf,  loaves;  life,  lircs ; 
beef,  beeves  ;  shelf  shelves ;  knife,  hiives.  Others,  as  chief,  dwarf  fife,  grief 
gulf,  handkerchief,  hoof,  proof  roof,  reproof  safe,  scurf  strife,  surf  turf,  and 
most  of  tliose  ending  in  ff]  form  the  plural  regularly;  as,  grdf  gidfs; 
nuiff,  muffs.  Staff  has  slaves  in  the  plural,  but  its  compounds  are  regu 
lar ;  as,  flagstaff,  flagstaff's. 

Rem.  4.  —  Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant,  form  the  plural  by 
changing  y  to  ics  ;  as,  lady,  ladies.  But  nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  vowel, 
form  the  plural  regularly ;  as,  day,  days. 

Obs.  —  Many  words  ending  in  y  were  formerly  spelled  with  ie  in  the 
Bmgular;  as,  glorie,  vanitic.  The  termination  {e,  in  the  singular,  is  now 
laid  aside  for  y,  while  the  old  [jlural  termination  ies,  is  retained;  as,  glory, 
glories ;  vanity,  vanities. 

Rem.  5.  —  The  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  are  variously 
formed  :  —  man,  men ;  woman.,  women  ;  child,  children ;  ox,  oxen  ; 
mouse,  viice  ;  looth,  teeth  ;  e/oose,  geese  ;  foot,  feet ;  hrother,  brothers 
(when  applied  to  persons  of  the  same  family)  ;  brother,  brethren 
(when  applied  to  persons  of  the  same  society  or  profession) ;  die, 
dies  (stamps  for  coining)  ;  die,  dice  (small  cubes  for  gaming)  ;  ge- 
vitts,  genii  (aerial  spirits);  genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius),;  pea, 
pease  (the  species)  ;  pea,  peas  (the  seeds  as  distinct  objects)  ;  pen- 
ny, pence  (in  computation);  penny,  pennies  (as  distinct  species  of 
coin). 

How  is  the  plural  of  nouns  generally  formed  ?  What  words  form  i  he  plural 
by  adding  s  only  ?  Examples.  What  words  by  adding  es  ?  Ex<:mples 
Give  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns :  —  Man,  wcman,  child,  o.r,  mouth,  tooth, 
rvose,  foot,  brother,  die,  genius,  pea,  itenny. 


44 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem.  6. —  Spooyiful,  inoiisc-trap,  camera -ohsatra^  Ave-Markt,  and  other 
similar  compound  noun«,  form  the  plural  rejrularly;  as.  spoonfuls,  wmise- 
traps,  camera-obscuras,  Ave  Marias.  But  words  composed  of  an  adjective 
and  a  noun,  or  of  two  nouns  coimectcd  by  a  preposition,  generally  foini 
the  plural  by  adding  s  to  the  first  word;  as,  court-martial,  courts-martial ; 
hruqltt-errant,  knight s-errant ;  aid-de-camp,  aids-dc-camp ;  coast n-gennan, 
cousins-german  ;  son-in-law,  sons-in-laiv. 

Examples :  —  "  Those  who  are  carried  down  in  coachfids  to  "Westmin- 
ster-Hall."—  Addison.     "  Captains  Orme  and  Morris,  the  two  oth- 


er aids-de-camp,  were  wounded  and  disabled."- 
lunacy  as  to  hiighls-errant  remaining  unabated."  - 


,<?i 


parks. 


The 


■  Hallain. 

Rem.  7.  —  Letters  and  numeral  figures  generally  form  the  plural 
Dy  adding  an  apostrophe  with  the  letter  s;  as,  Twelve  a's ;  three 
5's.  The  plural  of  words,  considered  as  words  merely,  is  formed  in 
the  same  manner. 

Examples:  —  "  I  busied  myself  in  crossing  my  fs  and  dotting  my  t's 
very  industriously." —  WiUis.  "The  dividend  contains  two  ar's, 
two  y's,  and  two  z's." —  Young's  Algebra.  "  Cast  all  the  9's  out  of 
the  sum  of  the  figures  in  each  of  the  two  factors."  —  Hutton's 
Mathematics.  "  Who,  that  has  any  taste,  can  endure  the  incessant, 
quick  retunis  of  the  cdsos,  and  the  likeicise' s,  and  the  morcover's, 
and  the  however' s,  and  the  iiotwilhstandimfs?" — Campbell's  Phil. 

of  met. 

Rem.  8.  —  Many  r.ouns  adoptcif  from  foreign  languages,  retain  their 

original  plurals : 

Alumnus 

Amanuensis 

Analysis 

Animalculura 

Animalcule  (  Eng~ 

Antithesis 


alumni 
amanuenses 

analvses 


Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 

Automaton 

Axis 

Bandit 

Basis 


{aj)ic 
apej 

1 

! 

(ba 

^bs 


animalcula* 

antitheses 

ices 
apexes 
appendices 
appendixes 
arcana 
automata 
automatons 
axes 
banditti 
bandits 
bases 


Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Chrysalis 
Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Diaeresis 

Dogma 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 


beaux 
(  cal(!es 
(  calxes 
(  cherubim 
/  cherubs 

chrysalides 

crises 

!riteria 
iterions 

data 

desiderata 

diaereses 
(  dogmas 
(  dogmata 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 


(  crit 
t  crit 


Wha'  rule  is  observed  in  forming  the  plural  of 'letters,  numerical  Jjgrtres. 
and  V'jrds  considered  merely  as  loords  f     Examples. 


*  "  Animaicuiai  is  a  barbarism."  —  Sw^rt,  ad^pt^d  hj  Worcester. 


NOCNS. 


45 


Encofljiam 

Ephemeria 

Enatum 

Focus 

Formula 


Fungus 

Genus 

Gymnasium 

Hypothesis 
lumis  fatuus 
Index 


Index 


Lamina 
Larva 

Medium 


encommms 

encomia 

ephemerides 

errata 

foci 

formulas 

formulae 
(  fungi 
(  funguses 

genera 
(  gymnasia 
I  gymnasiums 

hypotheses 

ignes  fatui 

indices  (refer- 
ring to  alge- 
hraic  quanti- 
ties) 

indexes  (point- 
ers, or  tables 
of  contents) 

laminae 

larvae 
(  media 
/  mediums 


Memorandum 

(  m.emoranda 
(  memorandums 

Metamorphosis 

metamorphoses 

Miasma 

miasmata 

Momentum 

( momenta 
(  momentums 

^lonsieur 

messieurs 

Nebula 

nebulas 

Oasis 

oases 

Parenthesis 

parentheses 

Phasis 

phases 

Phenomenon 

phenomena 

Eadius 

radii 

Scoria 

scoriae 

Scholium 

scholia 
scholiums 

Seraph 
Speculum 

seraphim 

seraphs 

specula 

Stamen 

stamens 
stamina 

Stimulus 

stimuli 

Stratum 

strata 

Thesis 

theses 

Vortex 

vortices 

Rem.  9.  —  Some  nourj  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers ;  as,  deer 
sheep,  sivine,  trout,  sahiwi  r^mgeries,  series,  species,  meaiis,  odds,  bellows  ;  eth- 
ics, mathematics,  mdaphi^s'  cs,  pneumatics,  optics,  and  other  similar  names 
of  sciences. 

Rem.  10.  —  There  rr^  also  several  nouns  of  number,  which  do  not 
commonly  vary  theJr  brjps  in  the  plural;  as,  "  Six  dozen;"  "  Three  score 
and  ten." 

Rem.  11.  —  The  fords  horse,  foot,  and  infantry,  denoting  bodies  of  sol- 
diers, are  singular  n  form,  but  plural  in  signification.  Cavalru  is  often 
used  in  the  sami  manner.  The  words  cannon,  sail,  and  head,  are  also 
frequently  empkyed  in  ?.  plural  sense. 

Examples  :  - "  Nelson  now  proceeded  to  his  station  with  eight  sail 
of  friga'es  under  his  command."  —  Southei/.  "  A  body  of  a  thou- 
sand hyrse  was  sent  foi"warl  to  reconnoitre  the  city."  —  Prescott 
"  He  *»rdered  two  cannon  to  ':ie  fired."  —  Irving. 

Rem.  12.  —  The  following  wordf,  though  sometimes  used  as  singular 
uouns.  aj-^  more  properly  plural :  —  alms,  amends,  pains,  riches,  wages. 

Rem.  13.  —  The  following  '.re  u  ed  only  in  the  plurah  — 


Annals 

Calends 

Goods 

Lungs 

Archives 

Clothes 

Hatches 

Manners 

Ashes 

Drawe.?  1  .n  ar- 

Hose (stockings) 

^Minutias 

Assets 

ticle  o''  Iress) 

Hvsterics 

Morals 

Billiards 

Dregs 

Ides 

Nippers 

Bitters 

Ember? 

Lees 

Nones 

Bowels 

Entrails 

liCtters  (literattire) 

Orgies 

Br?eche8 

Exuviae 

Literati 

Fincers 

40  ETYMOLOcr. 

Pleiads  Shears  Thanks  Vespers 

Politics  Snuffers  Tidings  Victuals 

Scissors  .         Statistics  Tongs  Vitals 
Shambles 

Rem.  14.  —  Nouns  denoting  objects  which  do  not  admit  of  plurality, 
are  used  only  in  the  singular  ;  as,  gold,  silver,  wheat,  mokisses,  wine,  jiour, 
industry,  pride,  wisdom. 

Ons.  —  When,  however,  different  hiwls  or  varieties  are  spoken  of,  words 
of  this  class  sometimes  take  the  jdural  form;  as,  "The  teas  of  China." — 
"  He  also  acquired  a  lucrative  monopoly  of  tvincs."  —  Bancroft.  In  these 
examples,  the  different  species  or  classes  are  signified,  and  not  a  nurcher 
of  individual  objects  of  the  same  class. 

Pem.  15.  —  The  word  neics  is  now  regarded  as  singular,  though  it  was 
formerly  used  in  both  numbers.  Shakspcare  has  it  most  frequently  in 
the  plural. 

IvKM.  16. —  Proper  names  are  sometimes  pluralized  like  other 
nouns;  as,  The  two  Scipios,  The  Howards,  Tlie  Johruions ;  but  these 
plural  names  are  not  used  to  designate  individuals,  and  may  with 
more  propriety  be  classed  with  common  nouns. 

Rem.  17.  —  Proper  names  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
are  sometimes  pluralized  by  adding  s  to  the  angular,  as  The  //en- 
ry.t,  The  Ptolemys ;  but  the  regular  form,  as  The  Henries,  The 
Ptolemies,  is  to  be  preferred.  Proper  names  ending  in  o  preceded 
b)'  a  consonant,  are  most  frequently  pluralized  by  adding  s  to  the 
singular;  as,  The  Catos,  The  Ciceros. 

Rkm.  18.  —  In  expressing  the  plural  of  a  proper  name  and  a 
title,  taken  as  one  complex  noun,  good  writers  most  frequently  an- 
nex the  plural  termination  to  the  title  only ;  as,  "  The  il/is.se« 
Smitii."     This  form  is  therefore  to  be  preferred.* 

Examples  :  —  "  The  Misses  Barrett."  —  Graham's  Magazine.  "  The 
Misses  Vanhomrigh."  —  Edinb.  Journal.  "  The  Misses  Wood."  — • 
Boston  Courier.  "  The  Misses  Fellows."  —  H.  Winsloio.  "  The 
Messrs.  Carey."  —  J.  G.  Palfrey.  "  The  Messrs.  Abbott."  —  Judije 
HiiLbard.  "  The  Messrs.  Harper."  —  ^V.  A.  Review.  "  Messrs. 
Percy."  —  Southey.  "  The  celebrated  Misses  Da^■idson."  —  R.  W. 
GrisKX)ld. 


What  of  proper  names,  pluralized?     How  do  writers  most  frequenilij  form 
the  plural  of  a  proper  name  and  a  title,  taken  as  a  complete  noun  ?    Examples 

*  In  forming  the  plural  of  proper  names  to  which  titles  are  prefixed, 
usage  is  still  unsettled.  While  a  majority  of  our  popular  -vwiters  plu- 
ralize  the  title  and  not  the  name,  as  "  The  Misses  Smith,"  there  is  al^o 


NOUNS.  47 

Rem.  19.  —  The  proper  names  of  nations,  societies,  groups  of  islands, 
and  chains  of  mountains,  are  generally  plural ;  as,  The  French,  The  Mora- 
vians, The  Azores,  Tlie  Alps,  The  Andes. 

EXERCISES. 

^  51.  Give  the  number  of  each  of  the  following  nouns :  — 
Cloud,  vices,  knives,  life,  lyceum,  mirth,  men,  feet,  brother. 

Give  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Month,  Hon,  church,  poet,  woman,  thought. 

Give  the  number  of  thefolloiinng  nouns :  — 

Oxen,  brethren,  die,  cherubim,  data,  hypotheses,  beaux, 
analysis,  series,  means,  mathematics,  alms,  wages,  ashes, 
scissors. 

Give  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns :  — 

Penny,  pailful,  father-in-law,  amanuensis,  focus,  stratum, 
erratum,  genus,  phenomenon. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular  num- 
ber; one  containing  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  plural. 

CASE. 

§  52.  Case  denotes  the  relation  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
to  other  words. 

Nouns  have  four  cases  ;  —  the  nominative,  the  posses- 
nve,  the  objective,  and  the  independent.* 

What  is  case  ?     What  cases  have  nouns  f 

a  liTse  class  of  writers  cqiiallv  reputable,  that  pluralize  the  name  and  not 
tke  title,  as  "  The  Mis.?  Smit)is." 

E.camples:  —  "The  Miss  Byleses."  —  Miss  Leslie.      "The  Jliss  Hor 
necks." —  Irvirig.     "The  two  Jliss  Flamhoroughs." —  Goldsmith. 

Besides  the  two  forms  already  exhibited,  there  is  still  another,  in  which 
the  plural  termination  is  annexed  to  both  the  name  and  the  title ;  as,  "  The 
Misses  Smiths."     This  form,  though  not  very  common,  is  occasionally  em 
ployed  by  the  best  writers. 

Examples:  —  "The  Messrs.  Harpers." — N.  A.  Revieio.     "The  Misse.% 

Mores." — B.  B.  Edwards.     "The  two  Misses  Beauvoirs."  —  Black- 

U'ood's  Magazine. 

♦  The  nominative  case  is  defined  by  the  best  grammarians,  to  be  "  that 

form  or  state  of  a  nonn  or  pronoun  which  denotes  the  suTycct  of  a  verb  ;" 

and  since  a  noun  or  pronoun,  used  independently,  caimoi  at  the  same  tim« 


48  ETYM3LOGY. 

§  53,  The  nominative  case  denotes  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb  ;  as,  "  Birds  %  ;  "  — "  Life  is  short." 

All  parts  of  the  verb  are  called  Jinite,  except  the  infinitive  and  the  par- 
ticiple. 

§  54.  The  possessive  case  denotes  ownership  oy  posses- 
sion ;  as,  "  John's  book  ;  "  —  "  The  sun's  rays." 

§  55.  The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is   generally 

formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe,  with  the  letter  s,  to  the 

nominative  ;  as,  nom.  mail ;  poss.  man's. 

Rem.  1. —  The  possessive  of  singular  nouns  ending  in  the  sound 
of  s  or  z,  is  sometimes  formed  by  adding  only  the  apostrophe  ;  as, 
"  Achilles'  shield."  In  poetry,  tliis  omission  of  the  apostrophic  s  is 
fully  sanctioned  by  usage ;  though  the  regular  form  is  also  fre- 
quently employed.  la  prose  writings,  the  s  may  be  omitted  when 
its  use  would  occasion  a  disagreeable  succession  of  hissing  sounds. 
Examples:  —  "  But  we  are  Hoses'  disciples." — John  9 :  28. 
"  Achilles'  shield  his  ample  shoulders  spread, 

Achilles'  helmet  nodded  o'er  his  head."' — Pope. 
"  A  train  of  heroes  followed  through  the  field, 

■VVTio  boi-e  by  turns  great  Ajax'  seven-fold  shield." — Ibid. 
''  As  for  Tihullus^s  reports, 
"I'hey  never  passed  for  law  in  courts." — Swift. 
Obs.  —  The  learner  will  observe  that  in  pronouncing  the  word  Moses  s, 
with  the  additional  s,  the  sound  of  z  occurs  three  times  in  immediate  suc- 
cession ;  while  in  such  expressions  as  "  Davies's  Surveying,"  the  sound 
of  z  occurs  only  twice,  the  third  s  retaining  its  proper  sound. 

Rem.  2.  —  "When  the  use  of  the  additional  s  does  not  occasion  an 

What  does  the  nominative  case  denote  ■?  Examples.  The  possessive  ? 
Examples.  How  is  the  possessive  singular  generally  formed  1  Examples. 
Under  what  circumstances  is  the  additional  s  omitted  ?     Examples. 

be  employed  as  "  the  subject  of  a  verb,"  there  is  a  manifest  impropriety  in 
regarding  it  as  a  nominative. 

''  Is  there  not  as  much  difference  between  the  nomivative  and  independent 
case,  as  there  is  between  the  jioj/i/'native  mid  objective?  If  so,  why  class 
them  togetlier  as  one  case  ?" — <S.  R.  Hull. 

"  Nomis  have  four  cases  ;  —  the  nominative,  possessive,  objective,  and  in 
dependent.'''' — Felton . 

Ho  also  Kenuion,  Fowle,  J.  Flint,  Goodenow,  Bucke,  Hazen,  Goldsbury, 
Feiroe,  Chapin,  S.  Alexander,  F.  Smith,  Clark,  Piuneo,  Dearborn,  and  Weld. 


NOUNS.  49 

anpleasant  succession  of  hissing  sounds,  the  regular  form  Is  gea- 

erally  to  be  preferred.* 

Examples: — " Mrs.  TZemans's  fine  lines  on  the  death  of  Fergus."— 
K  A. Review.  "  ColUns's  Odes"— SuiUhey.  "  The  character  of 
Doiujlas's  original  poetry." — HaHam.  "  The  original  remained 
in  manuscript  until  Sands's  writings  were  collected." — R.  W 
Griswold.  ^^  Edwards's  work  on  the  Will." — Channing.  "  Ste 
phens's  Incidents  of  Travel." — N.  A.  Review.  "  Erasmw^s  Dia 
logues." — Majcaulay.     "  Sandys^s  Sermons." — HaUam. 

Obs.  —  In  some  expressions  of  frequent  occurrence,  usage  ha« 
decided  in  favor  of  rejecting  the  additional  s,  contrary  to  the  geu 
eral  rule.     Thus,  we  say,  "  For  conscience?  sake,"  and  not  "  Fot 
conscience's  sake." 

Rem.  3.  —  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s,  form  the  possessive  by  add- 
ing an  apostrophe  only  ;  as,  nom.  fathers  ;  poss.  fathers'. 

Rem.  4.  —  Plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  In  s,  form  the  possessive 

by  adding  both  the  apostrophe  and  s;  as,  nom.  men;  poss.  men's. 

Reji.  5.  —  The  import  of  the  possessive  may,  in  general,  be  expressed 
by  the  preposition  of.  Thus,  for  "  Jlaii's  wisdom,"  we  may  say,  "  The 
wisdom  of  man.'" 

Rem.  6.  —  The  sign  's  is  a  contraction  of  es  or  is.  Thus,  man's,  king's, 
were  formerly  written  mannes,  kinges.^ 

How  do  plural  nouns  ending  in  s,  form  the  possessive  ?  Examples.  How 
do  plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  in  s,  form  the  possessixx  ?    Examples. 

*  With  respect  to  the  marine-  of  foiTtiing  the  possessive  of  singular  nouni 
,?ndiiig  in  .«,  the  usage  of  good  writers  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  dividecj- 
In  a  collection  of  nearly  a  thousand  examples,  from  the  productions  of  sev- 
eral hundred  difi'erent  authors,  about  two  thirds  of  the  number  retain  tha 
additional  s,  while  the  rest  reject  it.  The  rule  given  above  has,  therefore, 
for  its  support,  a  decided  preponderance  of  reputable  usage.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  remarked,  that  the  apostrophic  s  is  at  present  more  fi"equentlv 
omitted  than  formerly  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable,  that  in  the  cotn-se  r.' 
another  century,  usage  may  recjtiire  the  uniform  rejection  of  the  sin  prose, 
after  words  ending  in  the  sound  of «  or  z, 

t  Several  respectable  authoi-s  and  critics  have  fallen  into  the  error  of 
regarding  this  possessive  termination  as  a  contraction  of  the  pronoun  hi.i. 
"  The  same  single  letter  (s)  on  many  occasions,  does  the  office  of  a  whole 
wor^l,  and  represents  the  his  or  her  of  our  forefathers." — AMison. 

It  is  true  that  thc^^\rd  /;/,';  was  frequently  ^^Titten  after  words  to  form  the 
possessive,  by  Spencer,  Dryden,  Pope,  and  other  popular  authors,  during  a 
p;rii;d  of  two  or  three  centuries,  as,  "  Chn'si  his  sake,"  "  Sjcrales  his 
niles ; "  but  the  present  contracted  form  of  the  possessive  was  in  use  stiU 
earlier,  and  our  ablest  philologists  have  uniformly  referred  its  origin  to  the 
old  Saxon  temiination. 

"  From  the  introduction  of  the   Sascns  into   this  Lslanl,  to  the  Norman 

3 


50  ETYMOLOGT 

§  56.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  or  a  preposition;  as,  "Bojs  love  J3?ayy"  — 
*'  The  queen  of  England^ 

§  57.  The  independent  case  denotes  that  the  noun  or 
pronoun  is  used  absolutely,  having  no  dependence  on  any 
other  word  ;  as,  "  Your  fathers*  -where  are  they  ?  "  — 
"  The  treaty  being  concluded,  the  council  was  dissolved  ; " 
— "  There  is  no  terror,  Cassius,  in  your  threats  ;  "  — 
"Webster's  Dictionary  ;  ^^  —  ''^Liberty!  Freedom!  Ty- 
ranny is  dead  ! " 

Rem. —  The  nominative,  objective,  and  independent  cases  of  nonns  are 
the  same  in  form,  being  disangaished  only  by  their  relation  to  other  words. 

Norn.  Obj.  Nom.  ObJ. 

John  struck  James.  James  strnck  Jolm, 

Here  the  meaning  is  reversed  by  the  interchange  of  the  nouns ;  the 
nominative  or  agent  being  indicated  by  its  preceding  the  verb,  and  the  ob- 
ject  of  the  action  by  its  folloicing  the  verb.  A  noun  in  the  independent 
case  is  distinguished  by  its  denoting  neither  subject,  object,  nor  possessor. 

DECLENSION. 

§  58.  To  decline  a  noun,  is  to  express  its  cases  and  numbers. 
Singular,  Plural..  Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Father  fathers  Man  men 

Pass.  Father's  fathers'  Man's  men's 

Ohj.     Father  fathers  Man  men 

Jnd.     Father  fathers  Man  men 

What  does  the  objective  case  denote  ?  Examples.  "Wliat  does  the 
independent  case  denote  ?     Examples.     What  is  it  to  decline  a  noun  1 

conquest,  the  Saxon  genitive  was  in  univcreal  u.se.  From  the  latter  period 
to  the  time  of  Henry  II.  (1170),  thongh  the  English  language  underwent 
some  alterations,  we  still  find  the  Saxon  genitive.  In  Gavin  Douglass,  who 
lived  in  the  beginnins;  of  the  sixteenth  centurv,  we  find  is  instead'of  ex^ 
thus,  faderis  haiids.  In  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  we  find,  in  the  works 
of  Sir  T.  More,  both  the  Saxon  and  the  English  genitive ;  and  in  a  letter 
•written  in  1559,  by  Maitland  of  Lethington,  the  English  genitive  frequently 
occurs.  Had  this  genitive,  then,  been  an  abbreviation  for  the  noun  and  the 
pronorui  his^  the  use  of  the  words  separately  would  have  preceded  tlieir  ab 
breviated  form  in  composition.  This,  however,  was  not  the  case." —  Cmmhie. 
See  also  Wallis's  Grammatica  Lingnte  Anglicanre,  Hickes's  Thesaurus, 
Brightland,  Fisher,  British  Grammar,  Fenning,  Lowth,  Priestley,  Ash,  Bri),- 
tain,  Grant,  Sutcliffe,  Latham,  Johnson,  and  Webster. 

*  For  a  particular  description  of  the  difterent  classes  of  words  in  the  in- 
dcpeudent  case,  see  tb&-Remark  urder  the  4th  Rnle  of  Synt.-ix. 


ADJECTIVES.  51 

Rem.  —  "  Susan  used  Eliza's  book."  Susan  J;  Tiere  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  and  is  therefore  in  the  nominutive  case;  Eliza's  is  in  tlie  possessive 
case,  because  it  denotes  the  owner  of  the  book ;  look  is  the  object  of  the 
action  expressed  by  the  verb  tiscd,  and  is  therefore  in  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES. 

§59.  "Romulus  founded  the  city  of  Rome." — "The 
king's  heart  is  in  the  hand  of  the  Lord."  —  "  The  prophets, 
do  they  live  forever  ?  "  —  "A  wise  man's  anger  is  of  short 
continuance."  —  "  Genius  lies  buried  on  our  mountains  and 
in  our  valleys."  —  "  Columns,  arches,  pyramids,  —  what  are 
they  but  heaps  of  sand  ?  "  —  "  As  virtue  is  its  own  reward,  so 
vice  is  its  own  punishment."  —  "  Venerable  men  !  you  have 
come  down  to  us  from  a  former  generation." 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  and  give  the  case  of 
each,  with  the  reason.  Give  also  the  gender,  jierson,  and  number  of  each, 
with  the  reasons. 

Write  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive  plural  of  the/allowing  nouns  : 
Man,  child,  body,  day,  needle. 

Write  one  or  more  sentences,  containing  c  .samples  of  nouns  in  all  the 
different  cases. 


THE    ADJECT  IVE. 

§  60.  An  Adjective  *  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, to  qualify  or  define  its  meaning ;  as,  lionest  men ; 
ten  days  ;  tliis  book. 

§  61.  Adjectives  may  be  classed  under  two  general 
divisions  ;  —  desa-iptive  and  definitive. '\ 

What  is  an  adjective  1     Examples.     What  ai-e  the  principal  classes  of 
adj.ectives  1 

*  The  term  adjective  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  arlji-ctiis,  which  sig 
nifies  a<ld(il  to. 

t  "Adjectives  nr2  of  two  kinds,  defining  and  describing  adjectives.'  — 
CardcU.     See  also  Butler,  R.  W.  Green,  and  Goodonow. 


52  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  A  descriptive  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  some 
quality  or  property  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  be- 
longs ;  as,  a  dutiful  child  ;  a,  faithful  friend;  large  trees. 

2.  A  definitive  adjective  is  one  that  dafines  or  limits  the 

meaning  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs ;  as, 

three  days ;  these  books  ;  the*  lesson ;  all  men. 

§  62.  These  two  general  classes  of  adjectives  may  also  be  divided 
into  several  others,  of  -which  the  follo-\ving  are  the  most  important :  — 

1.  A  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  derived  from  a  proper  name  ; 
as,  American,  Ciceronian. 

2.  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  is  used  to  express  number* 
as,  one,  tivo,  three ;  first,  second,  third. 

One,  two,  three,  etc.,  are  also  denominated  cardinal  adjectives  ;  and  j?rs<, 
S€C0t\d,  third,  etc.,  ordinal  adjectives. 

3.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  word  that  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  the  pronoun  and  the  adjective. 

Rem.  1.  —  "WTien  used  to  define  a  noun  expressed,  it  is  parsed  as 
an  adjective ;  but  when  employed  as  a  substitute  for  a  word  or 
phrase,  it  is  parsed  as  a  pronoun.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Some 
cried  one  thing,  and  some  another,"  one  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  ad- 
jective ;  but,  in  the  expression,  "  Every  one  has  his  peculiar  trials," 
one  perfonns  the  office  of  a  proijoun  or  substitute. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are  eac7i,  ctw?/, 
either,  neither,  this,  that,  these,  those,  all,  any,  one,  other,  another, 
none,  some,  such,  same,  both,  several,  few,  much,  many. 

Rem.  3. — Each,  evert/,  eithe.;  and  neither,  are  called  distribu- 
tives, because  they  denote  the  persons  or  things  that  make  up  a 
number,  considered  separately  ;  as,  "  Each  man  in  his  order." 


What  is  a  descriptive  adjective?  Examples  "What  is  a  definitive 
adjective "?  Examples.  Into  what  other  classes  are  adjectives  divided  ? 
What  is  a  proper  adjective  f  Examples.  A  numeral  adjective  ?  Examples. 
A  prononunal  adjective?  When  is  a  pronominal  adjective  parsed  as  an  ad- 
jective, and  when  as  a  pronoun  ?  Illustrate.  What  are  some  of  the  princinal 
pronominal  adjectives  f  'Which  of  the  pronominal  adjectives  are  called  dis- 
tributives, and  why ? 


*  See  note  respectii  g  the  article?  p  5-3. 


ADJECTIVES.  53 

Rem.  4. —  This,  that,  these,  and  those,  are  called  demonstratives, 
because  they  point  out  precisely  the  objects  to  wMcli  they  refer. 

Rem.  5. —  Both  denoies  two  objects  taken  tocrether.    Another  is  cora 
posed  of  a7i  and  other.    None  is  used  in  both  numbers. 
Eem.  6.  —  Other  is  thus  declined :  — 

Singiclar.  Plural. 

Nonu  Other  others 

Pass.  Other's  peers' 

Ohj.  Other  othera 

Ind.  Other  others 

■Rem.  7.  —•Another  and  one  are  also  declined,  but  another  is  used  onlj 

in  the  singular. 

4.  A  participial  adjective  is  a  word  that  has  the  form  of  a  parti- 
ciple, and  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective ;  as,  a  beloved  child , 
a  lasting  impression.     See  Rem.  under  §  81. 


ARTICLES.* 

§  63.  The  definitive  adjectives  a  or  an,  and  the,  are 
denominated  articles. 

1.  ^  or  ari  is  called  the  indefinite-  article,  because  it  does 

Which  demonstratives,  and  why?  How  is  other  declined?  }Vhca  is  a 
participial  adjective?  Examples.  What  words  are  called  articles ♦ 
Which  is  called  an  indefinite  article,  and  why  ? 

*  The  most  approved  definition  of  the  article  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
words  071S,  that,  mis,  these,  and  other  definitives ;  and  any  definition  of  the 
adjective,  which  is  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  include  the  definitives 
this,  that,  etc.  will  include  also  the  words  a  and  the.  With  what  propriety, 
then,  can  the  articles  be  separated  from  other  definitives,  and  made  to  con- 
stitute a  distinct  part  of  speech  ? 

"  A  or  a7i,  and  the,  are  not  a  distinct  part  of  speech  in  our  language." — 
Weister. 

"  The  words  a  or  an,  and  t\e,  are  reckoned  by  some  grammarians  a  sep- 
arate part  of  speech ;  but,  as  tliey  in  all  respects  come  under  the  definition 
of  the  adjective,  it  is  unnecessary,  as  well  as  improper,  to  rank  them  as  a 
class  by  themselves." — Co>nion. 

"It  is  unnecessary,  in  any  ian^^uaM,  to  regard  the  articles  as  a  distinct 
part  of  speech." — Buttr/ianii's  Greet-  Gram,mar. 

The  articles  are  also  ranked  with  adjecti'wes  bv  Priestley,  E.  Oliver,  Beli, 
Elphinston,  il'Culloch,  D'Orsey,  Lindsay,  Joel,  Greenwood,  Smetham,  Dal- 
ton,  King,  Hort,  Buchanaii,  Crane,  J.  Russell,  Frazee,  Cutler,  Perley,  Swett, 
Day,  Goodenow,  AVillard,  Robbins,  Felton,  Snyder,  Butler,  S.  Barrett, 
Ba^gley,  Howe,  Whiting,  Davenport,  Fowle,  Weld,  Greene,  aud  others. 


64  ETYMOLOGY. 

not  indicate  any  particular  Dbject ;  as,  a  book  ;  that  is,  and 
book. 

2.  The  is  called  the  definite  article^  because  it  indicates 
some  particiJar  object ;  as,  the  book ;  that  is,  some  par- 
ticular book. 

Rkm.  1.  —  Ah  used  before  words  beginning  mth  a  consonnn' 
sound;  as,  a  tree,  a  house,  a  union,  a  ewe,  a  youth,  a  eulogy,  a  one, 
a  world. 

Obs. —  The  words  union,  ewe,  and  eulog}/,  commence  wth  the  consonant 
sound  of  y ;  and  the  word  one  commences  with  the  consonant  sound  of  w. 
Rem.  2.  —  An   is   used   before   words   beginning   with  a  vowel 
found;  as,  an  eagle,  an  hour,  an  outline. 

Rem.  3.  —  An  is  also  employed,  by  most  writers,  before  words  be- 
ginning with  h  not  silent,  when  the  accent  falls  on  the  second  syl- 
lable. 

Examples:  — "An  historical  piece." —/m'ngf.     "An  historical  sub 
jeet." — Goldsmith.     "An  hereditary  government."  —  E.  Everett 
"  An  harmonious  whole."  —  Southey. 
Rem.  4.  —  .4  or  an  is  the  Saxon  word  ane  or  an,  signifj-ing  one. 

COMPARISON. 

§  64.  The  comparison  of  adjectives  is  the  variation 
by  which  they  express  different  degrees  of  quality. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  —  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

1.  The  positive  degree*  is  that  -which  expresses  the  sim 
pie  state  of  the  quality ;  as,  good,  ivise. 

Which  is  called  the  definite  article,  and  why  1     Before  what  vxrds  is  a 
used  f     Examples.     When  is  an  used  f     Examples.     WhcU  ntle  is  observed 
respecting  the  form  of  the  article  before  a  word  beginning  tvith  h  not  silent  f 
Examples.    What  is  the  comparison  of  adjectives  1     What  are  the  differ 
ent  degrees  1     What  is  the  po'sitive  degree  ?     Examples. 

*It  has  been  objected  to  the  positive  form,  that,  as  it  denotes  the  qnality 
in  its  simple  state,  without  increase  or  diminution,  it  cannot  properly  be 
called  a  degree.    It  should,  however,  be  considered  that  all  adjectives  imply 


ADJECTIVES.  55 

2.  The  comparative  degree  denotes  ttat  one  object  pos- 
sesses a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quahty  than, an- 
other with  which  it  is  compared;  as,  letter,  wiser,  less 
wise. 

3.  The  superlative  degree  denotes  that  one  of  several 
objects  possesses  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quality 
than  any  of  the  rest ;  as,  best,  wisest,  least  ivise. 

§  65.  The  comparative  of  adjectives  of  one  syllable, 
is  commonly  formed  by  adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive ;  as, 
wise,  wiser  ;  great,  greater ;  and  the  superlative,  by  add- 
ing st  or  est ;  as,  wise,  wisest ;  great,  greatest. 

Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  are  generally 
compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  positive  ;  as, 
generous,  more  generous,  most  generous, 

Dimijiutio7i  of  quality  is  expressed  by  less  and  least, 
whether  the  adjective  is  of  one  syllable  or  more  than  one ; 
as,  bold,  less  bold,  least  bold. 

Rem.  1.  —  Dissyllables  ending  iny  or  silent  e,  and  tbose  accented 
on  the  last  syllable,  are  often  compared  like  monosyllables,  by  er 
and  est;  as,  happy,  happier,  happiest;  noble,  nobler,  noblest;  pro- 
found, profounder,  profoundesL 

Rem.  2.  —  The  foregoing  principles,  respecting  the  comparison  of  ad- 
jectives, are  those  which  conform  to  the  prevailing  usage  of  the  lan- 

What  does  the  comparative  degree  denote  %  Examples.  The  super- 
lative ■?  Examples.  How  are  adjectives  of  one  syllable  generally  com- 
pared 1  Examples.  How  are  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  gen 
erally  compared  ?  Examples.  How  is  diminution  of  quality  expressed  • 
Examples.  What  classes  of  dissyllables  are  often  compared  by  er  and  est  * 
[  miat  is  a  dissyllable  ?]     Examples  of  dissyllables  compared  by  er  and  est. 

a  general  comparison  of  qualities.  Thus,  when  we  say  that  a  man  is  dis- 
creet, we  obviou.«ly  mean  that  he  has  more  ''.iscretion  than  the  generality 
of  men.  So  also,  when  we  say  a  man  is  tall,  it  is  implied  that  he  is  tall 
Compared  with  other  men.  Hence  arises  the  difference  between  the  height 
of  a  tall  man  and  that  of  a  tr.ll  tree,  each  beinp  compared  with  others  of 
the  same  kind.  In  this  sense,  therefore,  the  positive  is  strictly  and  properly 
t  iegree  of  comparison 


56 


ETTMOLOOY. 


guage.  They  are,  however,  in  some  cases,  disrexarc'cd  by  the  best  vrnt. 
ers  ;  as,  "  Objects  of  our  tenderest  cares."  —  E.  Ecerett.  '•  The  cor.imonesi 
material  object."  —  Dana.     "  The  soieres^  ti'Uth."  —  C/tannhig. 

Rem.  3.  —  In  all  qnalities  capable  of  increase  or  diminution,  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  is  indefinite.  Whenever  we 
wish  to  express  any  of  the  different  shades  of  quality  which  are  not  de- 
noted by  the  three  forms  of  the  adjective,  we  employ  various  modifying 
words  and  phrases ;  as,  rather,  somewhat,  sliyhtly,  a  littk,  so,  too,  very,  yreatly, 
higUy,  exceedingly,  in  a  high  degree. 

Examples : —  "A  very  pernicious  war ; "  — "  It  is  a  little  discolored ; " 
—  "  Too  strong  to  bend,  too  proud  to  learn." 

Rem.  4.  —  The  termination  ish  is  also  joined  to  certain  words,  to  de 
note  a  slight  degree  of  quality ;  as,  black,  blackish  ;  salt,  saltisL 

Rem.  5.  —  When  either  of  the  words  more,  ynost,  less,  least,  is  prefixed 
to  an  adjective,  it  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  part  of  the  adjective. 
Thus,  tlie  compound  terms  inore  happy  and  le^^s  lujppy,  are  regarded  as  ad- 
jectives in  the  comparative  degree ;  but  when  the  words  are  considered 
separately,  the  pruuxes  more,  most,  etc.,  are  properly  adverbs. 

Kem.  6.  —  The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly:  — 


Positive. 
Good 
Bad,  evil,  or  ill 

Far 

Fore 

Late 

Little 

Much  ar  many 

Near 
Old 


Comparative. 

better 

worse 
(  farther* 
(  further 

former 

later 

less 
more 

nearer 

y  older 
I  elder 


Superlative. 

best 

worst 

farthest 

furthest 

foremost  (in  place) 

first  (in  time  or  order) 

latest  (referring  to  time) 

last  (in  order) 

least 

most 
(  nearest  (referring  to  place) 
\  next  (in  order) 

oldest 

eldest 


Rem.  7.  —  Some  adjectives  in  the  superladve  degree  are  formed  by 
adding  "nost  to  th''  comparative  or  to  tlie  word  from  which  the  compara- 
tive itself  is  made  ;  as.  hind,  hinder,  hiiidermost  or  hindmost ;  nether,  nether- 
most ;  up,  upper,  tcppermosl  or  upmost ;  in,  in-ner,  innermost  or  inmost. 

Rem.  8.  —  Adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of  in- 
crease or  diminution,  cannot  be  compared ;  as,  square,  first,  one^  ill, 
any,  wooden,  daily,  infinite. 


What  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly  f 
lives  canned  be  compared  ?     Examples. 


Compare  them.     What  adj-x- 


*  "  Further  is  the  genuine  Saxon  word ;  farther  takes  precedence  in  mod 
em  use."  —  Smart's  Diet. 


JS.- 


ADJECTIYES.  57 

Ob9.  —  The  word  perfect*  and  some  othersf  which  are  not  strictly 
comparable,  are  often  qualified  by  more  and  most^  and  by  less  and  least. 
Examples :  —  "A  more  perfect  civilization."  —  B.  B.  Edwards.     "  The 
most  perfect  society."  —  E.  Everett.      "  Less  perfect  imitations."  — 
Macaulay.     "  The  more  perfect  oneness."  —  Daiui. 

$  6G.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  to  perform  the  office  of  nouns, 
ad  "  Proddence  rewards  the  good;"  and  nouns  to  perfoi-m  the  office  of 
adjectives,  as  "  An  iron  fence ; "  —  "  Meadow  ground." 

EXERCISES. 

§  67.  Good,  this,  .seven,  round,  British,  the,  those,  straight, 
fortieth,  Whitehall,  rich,  any,  Chinese,  two,  an,  virtuous,  eigh- 
teen, destructive,  a,  some,  Alpine,  first,  many,  boiling  water, 
heated  iron. 

Which  of  the  foregoing  adjectives  are  descriptive  and  which  definitive  ? 
Which  of  them  are  proper  ?  Which  numeral  f  Which  pronominal  f 
Which  participial  ?     Which  are  articles  1 

Compare  the  following  adjectives :  — 

Strong,  robust,  sincere,  low,  swift,  grateful,  little,  bad,  stu 
dious. 

"  This  site  commands  an  extensive  view  of  the  surround- 
ing country."  — "  The  rapid  current  of  a  large  river,  the 
foaming  cataract,  the  vivid  flash  of  forked  lightning,  'and  the 
majestic  rolling  of  the  mighty  ocean,  are  objects  which  excite 
in  our  minds  emotions  of  grandeur  and  sublimity."  —  "Every 
leaf  and  every  twig  teems  with  life."  — "  Homer  was  the 
greater  genius  ;  Virgil,  the  better  artist." — "  Rhode  Island  ia 
the  smallest  state  in  the  Union."  —  "  Numbers  are  expressed 
by  ten  Arabic  characters." 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  foregoing  sentences.  Which  of  them 
are  descriptive  ?  Which  definitive  ?  Which  are  proper  f  Which  nume- 
ral ?  Which  pronominal  1  Which  participial  ?  Which  are  the  articles  ? 
Which  of  the  descriptive  adjectives  are  in  the  positive  degree  f  Compare 
them.  Which  are  in  the  comparative  ?  Compare  them.  Which  in  the 
superlative  ?     Compare  them. 

t  "  Usage  has  given  to  '  more  and  most  perfect '  a  sanction  which  we  dar« 
hardly  controvert."  —  Crombie. 

X  "  More  complete,  most  complete,  less  complete,  are  common  expressions." 

>  -  Webster. 


58  ETYMOLOGY. 

Wiite  sentences  containing  examples  of  descriptive  and  definitive 
adjectives  ;  and  others  containing  examples  of  adjectives  in  each  of  the 
three  degrees  of  comparison. 


THE    PRONOUN. 

§  68.    A  Pronoun*  is  a  word  used  to  supply  the  place 

of  a  noun ;  as,  "  When  Caesar  had  conquered  Gaul,  he 

turned  his  army  against  Ms  country." 

Rem.  —  The  word  which  is  represented  by  a  pronoun  usually 
precedes  it,  and  is  hence  called  its  antecedent. 

§  69.  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  three  general 
classes ;  — personal,  relative,  and  interrogative. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUN. 

§  70,  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  expresses 
pei'son  and  number  of  itself. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  /,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and 
it.  I  is  of  the  first  person ;  thou  or  you  is  of  the  second ; 
and  he,  she,  and  it,  are  of  the  third. 

Pronouns,  like  nouns,  have  gender,  person,  number, 
and  case. 

Rem.  1.  —  Personal  pronouns  are  varied  to  distinguish  the  num- 
bers and  cases ;  but  variety  of  form  to  distinguish  the  genders,  is 
confined  to  the  third  person  singular. 

What  is  a  pronoun  1    Examples.     What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  ? 
Into  what  general  c^.asses  are  pronouns  divided  ?     What  is  a  personal 
pronoun  1     Enumerate  the  personal  pronouns,  and  give  the  person  of 
each.     What  modifications  have  pronouns  1     For  what  are  pergonal  pro 
Houns  varied  f 

*The  tenn  p/onoiai.  is  derived  from  two  Latin  words, /wc»  and  novun, 
which  signify  for  a  mime. 


ADJECTIVES.  59 

Rem.  2.  —  As  persons  speaking  or  spoken  to,  are  supposed  to  be  pres- 
ent, and  their  sex  sufficiently  obvious,  variety  of  form  in  the  correspond- 
ing: pronouns,  to  express  distinction  of  gender,  is  unnecessary.  But  per- 
sons or  things  spoken  of,  being  considered  as  absent,  it  is  proper  to  make 
fi  distinction  of  gender :  and  the  third  person  of  the  pronoun  is  accord- 
ingly distinguished  by  using  he  for  the  masculine,  she  for  the  feminine, 
and  it  for  the  neuter. 

DECLENSIOI^  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 


§  '71.   First  Person. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.     I 

we* 

Poss.    My  or  mine 

our 

Ohj.      Me 

us 

Ind.      Me  or  I 

we 

Rem.  I. —  3/?«e  and  thine  wore  formerly  employed  instead  of  my  and 
thy,  before  words  beginning  with  the  sound  of  a  vowel.  This  usage  ia 
uow  confinevi  chiefly  to  poetry  and  the  solemi.  style  of  prose. 

Examples:  —  "I  kept  myself   from  mine  iniquity."  —  Ps.  18:  23. 
"  Mine  hour  is  not  yet  come."  —  John  2  :  4. 

"  God  stay  thee  in  thine  agony,  my  boy."  —  Willis. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  fii-st  person  singular  is  seldom  used  in  the  independent 
case,  except  by  exclamation.  The  first  person  plural,  when  used  inde- 
pendently, properly  takes  the  same  form  as  the  nominative,  though  the 
ttbioctive  form  is  sometimes  employed. 

Examples :  —  "  O  wretched  ice!"  —  Dryden.     "  O  rare  toe!"  —  Cbw- 
per.     "  Ah  !  luckless  /."  —  Francis. 

"Ah  me!  neglected  on  the  lonesome  plain." — Beattie. 

"  3Te  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly 
Infinite  wi-atli  and  infinite  despair  ?  "  —  ililton. 

§  '72.   Second  Person.  —  Solemn  Style. 


Singular 

Plm 

ral. 

Nom. 

Thou 

ye  or 

you 

Poss. 

Thy  or 

thine 

your 

Ob). 

Thee 

you 

Ind. 

Thou 

ye  or 

you 

Decline  I.    Dedine  thou. 


♦  The  plural  of  pronouns  in  the  first  and  second  persons,  does  not  bear 
the  same  relation  to  the  singular  as  the  plural  of  nouns.  Thus  the  plural 
vien  is  equivalent  to  the  repetition  of  the  singular  mail.  But  the  plural  toe 
is  equivalent  to  Vlie  singuhir  J,  t02;ether  with  others  in  the  second  or  third 
person,  niirl  a-'.t  to  the  siiigiilar  /  repeated.  So,  also,  the  plural  of  thou  ia 
often  equivalent  to  tkou,  together  with  others  in  the  thiird  person. 


60  ETTKOLOGT. 

Rkm.  1. —  The  pronoun  thou  is  employed  in  addressing  the  Deitj, 
in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  in  pcetry.  It  also  occurs  in  other 
solemn  or  impassioned  prosaic  -writings,  and  the  Society  of  Friends 
still  use  it  in  common  discourse. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  poets  sometimes  employ  ^"e  instead  of  you  for  the  objec- 
tive plural ;  as, 

"  Brother,  sweet  sister,  peace  around  ye  dwell  "  —  Hemans. 

"  I  told  ye  then  he  should  prevail  and  speed 
On  his  bad  errand."  —  Milton. 

This  usage  is  generally  regarded  as  inelegant. 
§  73. 


Secoxd  Person. 

—  Common  Style 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Norn.     You 

you 

Pons.     Your 

}"our 

Obj.      You 

you 

Ind.      You 

you 

Rem.  —  The  wo'-U  you  *  v/as  originally  plural  in  signification  ; 

When  is  thou  onployed  9  Ji^uamples.  Decline  you.  What  was  the  origi- 
ncd  use  of  you  ? 

*  No  usage  of  our  language  is  more  fully  established  ttian  that  which  reo 
ognizes  yon  as  the  representative  of  nouns  in  the  singular  number. 

"  In  the  using  of  t/oii  to  one,  as  well  as  to  7>wre  than  one  (which  is  the 
Language  of  the  Nation,  not  only  spoke  by  the  private  persons,  but  extant 
in  the  both  private  and  publick"  Writings' of  it),  we  do  seem  to  imitate  the 
French,  who,  as  they  have  one  word,  viz.  tu  for  tkoii,  and  one,  viz.  vos  for 
ye;  so  they  have  one  which  they  use  both  to  o)ie,  and  to  more  than  one,  in- 
differently; namely,  t-'O!",  yoic." — Wcdker^s  Treatise  of  English  Particles  ; 
London,  1653. 

Brightland,  one  of  the  earliest  of  our  English  grammarians,  who  wrote  in 
1710,  classes  yoii  with  the  singular  pronouns  /,  tkon,  and  he.  Greenwood, 
in  his  celebrated  grammar,  which  appeared  the  following  year,  saj-s,  "  Thou 
or  you  is  of  the  second  person  singular."  This  disposition  of  you  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  author  of  the  British  Grammar,  and  by  Farro,  Fisher,  Bu- 
chanan, Dilworth,  Smetham,  Menye,  and  several  other  gi-ammatical  writers 
of  the  last  century. 

Mt.  Jlurray's  grammar  first  appeared  in  1795.  Following  the  practice  of 
the  iiociety  of  Friends, — the  community  in  which  he  was  educated, — he 
restri.ited  you  to  the  plural  number;  and  such  was  the  influence  of  his  ex- 
ample that  this  word  was,  for  a  time,  very  generally  excluded  from  the  list 
of  sing  liar  pronouns. 

Ther^i  has,  however,  always  existed  a  respectable  class  of  authors,  who 
have  treated  the  pronoun  you  as  singular,  when  applied  to  an  individual ; 
and,  during  the  last  twsnty-five  or  thirty  years,  the  numbCx-  of  this  class  has 
yeiy  rapi  U}'  increased. 

"  It  is  t  Itogether  absurd  to  consider  yaic  as  Sicl  naively  a  plursJ  pronoun 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 


61 


but  it  IS  now  universally  employed  in  populai-  discourse,  Ui  repre- 
sent either  a  singular  or  a  plural  noun. 

§  74.     Third  Person. 


Masadine. 

Feminine. 

iVei 

Iter. 

Sinffidar.    Plural, 

Singular.    Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural 

Nom. 

He          they 

She          they 

It 

they 

Poss. 

His          their 

Her          their 

Its 

their 

Obj. 

Him        them 

Her          them 

It 

them 

Ind. 

He          they 

She           they 

It 

they 

Rem.  1.  —  In  the  third  person,  masculine  and  feminine,  the  indepen- 
dent case  has  usually  the  nominative  form,  though  the  use  of  the  objective 
is  not  wholly  destitute  of  authority-* 

Examples :  —  "  Ah  luckless  he  I "  —  Skenstcme. 

"  God  from  the  mount  of  Sinai,  whose  gray  top 
Shall  tremble,  he  descending,  wdll  himself 
Ordain  them  laws." — Milton. 

"  Miserable  lliey, 
"Wlio,  here  entangled  in  the  gathering  ice, 
Take  their  last  look  of  the  descending  sun." — Thomson. 

Decline  he,  she,  and  it. 


in  the  modern  English  language.  It  may  be  a  matter  of  lijston/,  that  it  was 
originally  used  as  a  plural  only ;  and  it  may  be  a  matter  of  theory,  tJmt  it 
was  first  applied  to  individuals  on  a  principle  of  flattery;  but  the  /art  is, 
that  it  is  now  our  second  person  singular.  Wlien  applied  to  an  individual, 
it  never  excites  any  idea  either  of  plurality  or  of  adulation  ;  but  exoites, 
precisely  and  exactly,  the  idea  that  was  excited  by  the  use  of  t/iou,  in  an 
earlier  stage  of  the  language." — Jeffrey,  in  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

"  If  a  word,  once  exclusively  plural,  becomes,  by  universal  use,  the  sign 
of  individuality,  it  must  take  its  place  in  the  singular  number.  That  this 
is  the  fact  with  you,  is  proved  by  national  usage." —  Webster. 

A  hst  of  additional  authorities  is  subjoined  for  the  gratification  of  the  cu- 
rious student.     The  writers  here  enumerated  treat  the  pronoun  you  as  sin- 
guLor,  when  applied  to  an  individual :  —  Angell,  C.  Adams,  A.  Alden,  Booth, 
Bell,  Brace,  Barnard,  Barrie,  John  Barrett,  D.  Blair,  Cochran,  Cutler,  Cobb, 
Davis,  Elmore,  Emmons,  Felton,  Fletcher,  Fuller,  Fowle,  Gilbert,   Goode- 
now,  Goldsburv,  R.  W.  Green,  Gurney,  Joel,  Judson,  Lewis,  Morlev,  Jl'Cnl 
loch,  PnUen,  J.  M.  Putnam,  Picket,"  Pinnock,  Eoss,  W.  E.  Russell,  Caleb 
Reed,  Snvder,   Swett,   R.  C.    Smith,   P.    Smith,  Steams,  Sanborn,  Todd 
Ticken,  Wilcox,  Wilbur,  G.  Wilson,  J.  P.  Wilson,  Weld,  M'Cready,  Cooper 
Powers,  Whiting,  Beall,  J.  Ward,  Fowler. 

*"  Of  the  two  forms,  ^him  excejtted''  and  '■he  excepted^  the  former  (con 
trary  to  the  sentiment  of  the  majority  of  grammarians)  is  the  ^^orrect  one.' 
— PjUham. 

"  This  inaccessible  high  strength,  the  seat 
Of  deity  supreme,  us  dispos^-^sscd, 
He  trusted  to  h.ave  seized."-    M'lt»%, 


62 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem.  2.  —  His*  was  formerly  emploj'ed  as  the  possessive  of  both  he 
and  it. 

Examples :  —  "  Put  up  acjain  thy  sword  into  h's  place." — Matt.  26  • 
52.  "  Learning  hath  his  infancy,  when  it  is  but  beginning,  and 
almost  childish." — Bacon. 

Rem.  3.  —  My,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our,  your,  and  their,  are  sometimes, 
though  improperly,  termed  pronominal  adjectives. 

§  75.  Mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  are  possessive 
pronouns,  used  in  construction  either  as  nominatives  or  objectives  ;f 
as,  "  Your  pleasures  are  past,  mine  are  to  come."  Here  the  word 
mine,  which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  my  pleasures,  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb  are. 

Rem.  The  words  hers,  its,  ours,yours,  theirs,  are  sometimes  improperly 
written  her's,  ifs,  out's,  your's,  their's  This  error  should  be  carefully 
avoided. 

§  76.  The  words  myself,  thyself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  and 
itself,  with  their  plurals,  ourselves,  yourselves,  and  thevuelves,  are 
called  compound  personal  pronouns.  They  are  frequently  joined 
to  nouns  and  simple  pronouns,  to  express  emphasis ;  as,  "  You 
yourselves  are  the  contrivers  of  your  own  ruin ;  "  —  "  The  moun- 
tains themselves  decay  with  years."  They  are  also  used  when  the 
subject  and  the' object  of  the  verb  both  represent  the  same  person 
or  thing.  "  I  blame  myself ; "  —  "He  blames  me."  /and  myself 
here  denote  the  same  person,  and  we  use  the  compound  pronoun. 

What  is  said  of  the  possessive  pronouns,  mine,  thine,  etc.  ?  Illustrate 
their  use.  What  are  the  compound  personal  pronouns  ?  When  are  they 
employed  ?     Examples. 

*  "  The  possessive  its  does  not  appear  before  the  seventeenth  century." — 
Booth.    "  Its  is  not  found  in  the  Bible,  except  by  misprint." —  G.  Bro'wn. 

t  Many  grammarians  parse  m,ine,  thine,  etc.,  as  prononnain  the  possessive 
case,  and  governed  by  nouns  understood.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  This 
book  is  mine,"  the  word  mine  is  said  to  be  governed  by  hooh.  That  the 
word  hook  is  not  here  understood,  is  obvious  from  the  fact,  that,  when  it  is 
supplied,  the  phrase  becomes,  not  "mine  book,"  but  "  ?ny  book,"  the  pro- 
noun being  changed  from  m,i7ie  to  my  ;  so  that  we  are  made,  by  this  prac- 
tice, to  parse  mine  as  governed  by  a  word  understood,  before  which  it  can- 
not properly  be  used.  The  woril  mi?ii  is  here  evidently  employed  as  a 
Bubstitute  for  the  two  words,  my  and  book. 

"That  mine,  thine,  yours,  his,  hers,  theirs,  do  not  constitute  a  possessivo 
case,  Ls  demonstrable;  for  they  are  constantly  used  as  the  nominatives  to 
verbs  and  aa  objectives  after  verbs  and  prepositions." —  Webster. 

See  also  Dr.  Wilson,  Smart,  Jenkins,  Goorleuow,  Jaudou,  I''elch,  Hazeu, 
Todd,  E.  Smith,  Cooper^  Cutler,  Weld,  and  Davis. 


RELATIVE   PRONOONS.  63 

Rem.  —  The  word  sdf,  when  used  alone,  is  a  noun ;  as,  "  The  love  of 

adfis  predominant" 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

§  77.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  relates 
directly  to  some  preceding  word  or  phrase,  and  serves  to 
connect  sentences. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  antecedent  of  a  relative  is  in  the  independent 
case,  the  pronoun  connects  a  simple  sentence  with  the  independent  nonn 
or  pronoun  and  its  adjuncts ;  as, 

"  Ye  undying  and  desperate  sons  of  the  brave, 
Who  so  often  your  valor  have  shown." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  connective  office  of  a  relative  pronoun  should 
always  be  pointed  out  in  pawing.  Thus,  in  the  compound  sen- 
tence, "  Bless  them  that  curse  you,"  the  pronoun  lliat  Is  the  subject 
of  the  verb  curse  In  one  of  the  members ;  and  it  relates  to  them^ 
which  is  the  object  of  the  verb  hless  in  the  other  member.  A  rela- 
tive pronoun  always  relates  to  some  word  out  of  the  clause  in  whicL 
it  stands,  and  thus  joins  the  two  clauses  together. 

§  78.  The  words  used  as  relative  pronouns,  are  who, 
ivhich,  that,  and  what. 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  whieh  to  irrational  ani- 
mals and  things  without  life ;  as,  "  The  man  wJw  is  ac- 
customed to  reflect,  finds  instruction  in  every  thing ;  "  — 
"  I  have  found  the  book  which  I  had  lost." 

That  is  used  for  who  or  which,  and  may  be  applied  ei- 
ther to  persons  or  things ;  as,  "  He  that  gathereth  in  sum- 
mer, is  a  wise  son ;  "  —  "A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill, 
cannot  be  hid." 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  '  Ilbtstrate  the  connective  office  of  relatives. 
Enumerate  the  relative  pronouns.  What  are  the  respective  applications 
of  who,  which,  and  that  ?    ExaiTip'es  of  each. 


« 


64  ■  ETYMOLOGY. 

Whu,  which,  and  flat,  are  thus  declined:  — 

Sing,  and  Pliir.  Sing,  aixd  Pliir.  Sinj.  a  ad  Plur. 

Norn.     Who  Which  That 

Poss.     Who^Q  Wliose*  Whose 

Ohj.      Whom  Which  That 

Ind.      Wao  Which  

§  79.  The  word  what  is  often  used  as  a  compound  relalive  pro 
noun,  equivalent  in  signification  to  that  which\  or  those  which  ;  as, 
"  One  man  admires  tohat  [that  which']  displeases  another."  What 
here  sustains  the  relation  of  both  the  nominative  and  the  objective 
case.  As  a  nominative,  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  displeases ;  as 
an  objective,  it  is  the  object  of  admires. 

Rem.  1. —  What  sometimes  performs,  at  once,  the  office  of  an 
adjective  and  a  pronoun ;  as,  "  What  time  remained,  was  well  em- 
ployed." As  an  adjective,  what  here  qualifies  time  ;  as  a  pronoun, 
it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  remained. 

Rkji.  2.  —  Whoever,  tohichever,  whatever,  and  tehosoever,  whichso- 
ever, whatsoever,  are  also-used  as  compound  pronouns,  and  parsed  in 

Decline  the  relatives  who,  which,  and  that.  Hoio  is  what  o/ien  used? 
Examples.  Wlmt  two  parts  of  speech  does  what  sometimes  represent  ?  Ex- 
amples.    What  other  words  are  employed  as  compound  relatives  ?     Examples. 


*  The  possessive  of  lo-kick  is,  iti  ruany  grammars,  marked  as  wanting; 
but  tlie  use  of  whose,  as  the  possessive  of  both  w/io  and  u'/iich,  may  now  be 
regarded  as  fully  estabhsiied  by  the  authority  of  our  most  eminent  writers 
and  spealiers. 

Examples:  —  "  Cedar  groves,  whose  gigantic  branches  threw  a  refresh 
ing  coohiess  over  the  verdure." — Prescott.     "  At  such  times,  I  am 
apt  to  seeli  the  Hall  of  Justice,  whose  deep,  shadowy  arcades  extend 
across  the  upper  end  of  the  Court." — Irving.     "  Statues,  M•/^ose  mis- 
erable and  mutilated  fragments  are  the  models  of  modern  art." — E. 
Everett.     "  Impressions,  whose  power  can  scarcely  bo  calculated." — 
Cheever.     "  He  wanted  learning,  whose  place  no  splendor  of  genius 
can  supply  to  tne  lawyer." — Wirt.     "Dramas,  whose  termination  is 
the  total  ruin  of  their  heroes." — J.  G.  Lockhart.     "  A  triangle,  or 
three-sided  figure,  one  of  tvhose  sides  is  perpendicular  to  another." — 
Brougham.     Other  examples   from  the   best  authorities   might  be 
multiplied  at  pleasure. 
"I  have  given  xchose  as  the  genitive  of  which;  not  only  because  this 
usage  is  sanctioned  by  classical  authority,  but  likewise  because  the  other 
form,  of  which,  is  frequently  awkward  and  inelegant." — Dr.  Cromhie. 

t  Many  grammarians  erroneously  substitute  the  two  eqiiivalent  words, 
that  which,  and  parse  them  instead  of  the  original  word  what.     This  is  pars- 
ing their  own  language,  and  not  the  author's.     The  word  xvhat,  'A'hen  com 
pound,  should  be  p;u-oed  as  pcrfonuing  the  office  of  two  nominatives,  or  two 
objectives  or  of  both  a  nominative  aud  au  objective. 


INTERROGATIVE    PROXOCNS.  65 

Ihe  same  manner  as  the  compound  tohijt.     Thus,  in  the  sentence, 

'  ^\'^loover  disregards  the  laws  of  liis  being,  must  suffer  tlie  penalty," 

whoever  is  the  subject  of  the  two  verbs,  disregards  and  mu^t  suffer. 

IIe3I.  3.  —  ]Vhoso  was  formerly  used  as  a  compound  pronoun,  in  the 
sense  of  whosoever ;  as,  "  Whoso,  therefore,  shall  swear  by  the  altar,  swear- 
eth  by  it,  and  by  all  things  thereon."     It  is  now  nearly  obsolete. 

Rem.  4.  —  WJiich  and  what  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives ; 

as,  "  For  which  reason ; "  —  "  What  tongue  can  tell  ?  " 

§  80.  The  distinction  between  personal  and  relative  pronouns 
should  receive  special  attention.  Each  of  the  personal  pronouns  is 
used  to  represent  one  of  the  three  persons,  and  no  other.  Thus  1 
is  alwaj's  of  the  first  person,  and  he  always  of  the  third.  A  relative 
pionoun  does  not  express  person  of  itself,  but  always  depends  on 
its  antecedenl  for  person.  Thus,  ■we  may  say,  "  I  who  speak ; " 
"  You  ioAo  sptak ; "  "  He  ii?^o  speaks."  Who  is  here  employed  in 
each  of  the  three  persocs.  • 

ES^TERROGATl  VE  FllONOUNS. 

§   81.    An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  is 

used  in  asking  a  question ;  as,  "  WJlo  is  tliis  ?  "    The 

words  used  as  interrogative  pronouns,  are  ivho^  which,  and 

what. 

Rem.  1. —  Who,  used  interrogatively,  is  applied  only  to  persons ; 

which  and  tvhat  are  applied  to  both  persons  and  things. 

Rem.  2. —  ]Vhfther,  siirnifyinL;  whicA  of  the  tiro,  was  formerly  used  a» 
an  interrogative :  as,  "  Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his  father  » * 
In  this  sense  it  is  now  out  of  use. 


EXERCISES. 

§  82.    Give  the  person,  number,  and  case  of  each  of  the  following  pra 
iwuns : — 

His,  she,  its,  thee,  he,  they,  our,  I,  them. 

Give  earampks  of  which  and  what,  used  as  adjectives.     .Explain  and  ilhis 
trate  the  distinction  hetioeen  personal  and  relative  pronouns.     What  is  an  in 
terrogative  pronoun  ?     Enumerate  the  inteiTOgatives.     To  what  are  th» 
interrogatirxs  who,  which,  and  what,  respectively  applied  ? 


•e  ETYMOLOGf. 

What  personal  pn  loitn  is  in  the  third  person  singiudr,  mascidine  gender, 
and  possessive  case  ? — in  the  second  person  singular,  solemn  style,  and  objective 
case  ?  —  in  the  third  person  plural,  nominative  case  ?  —  in  the  first  person  plu- 
ral objectii'^e  case  ?  —  in  the  first  person  singidar,  possessive  case  ?  —  in  thy 
second  person  plural,  nominative  case  ?  —  in  the  third  ^person  sin/jular,  netUet 
gender,  possessive  case  ?  —  in  the  second  person  singidar,  common  style,  nomina 
tive  case  f  —  in  the  third  person  singular,  fiminine  gender,  nominative  case  t  — 
in  the  first  person  plural,  possessive  case?  Give  the  person,  member,  and  case 
ofhim ;  —  me ;  —  its ;  —  she ;  —  them ;  —  as ;  —  my ;  —  thee. 

"  As  he  was)  valiant,  I  honor  him."  —  "  The  crime  which 
has  been  once  committed,  is  committed  again  with  less  reluc- 
tance." —  "I  charge  thee,  fling  away  ambition."  —  "  He  that 
trusteth  in  his  riches,  shall  fall."  —  "  Virtue  is  most  laudable 
in  that  state  which  makes  it  most  difficult."  —  "  Who  wrote 
the  letter  ?  "  —  "  You  wrong  yourself."  —  "  O  thou  that  roU- 
est  above,  round  as  the  shield  of  my  fathers  ! " 

Point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences.    Which  of  them 

are  personal  1     Which  relative  ?     Wliich  interrogative  1     Give  the  per 

Bou,  numijer,  gender,  and  case  of  each,  with  the  reasons. 

Model.  —  He  (in  the  first  sentence  above)  is  a  pronoun,  becaiise  it  is 
a  word  used  to  supply  the  place  of  a  noun;  —  personal,  because  it  ex- 
presses person  and  number  of  itself; — in  the  third  person,  because  it 
denotes  a  person  spoken  of;  —  in  the  singular  number,  because  it  denotes 
but  one: — in  the  masculine  gender,  because  it  denotes  a  male;  —  and 
in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  uvis. 

Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  personal,  relative,  and  inter- 
rogative pronouns. 


THE    VERB. 

§  83.    A  Ve7-b  *  is  a  word  that  ex].resses  an  assertion 
01  affirmation  ;  f  as,  I  a?»/  I  teach  ;  I  am  taught. 

What  is  a  verb  ?     Examples, 

*  The  term  verb  is  derived  from  the  Latin  verbum,  which  sis^ifies  a  word. 
ThiL  part  of  speech  is  so  called  because  the  verb  is  the  principal  word  in  a 
sentence. 

*  The  idea  of  a  verb  is  not  easily  expressed  in  a  single  sentence.    The 


VERBS.  6Y 

A  Verb  may  also  be  used  to  cemmand,  exhort,  request, 
and  inquire,  as  "  Be  silent,"  "  S^are  me,"  "  Have  jou 
written  the  letter  ?  "  and  to  express  an  action  or  state  in 

general  and  abstract  sense,  as  doing,  to  obey. 

\  84.  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  general  classes;  — 
transitive  and  intransitive* 

1.  A  trayisitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  governs  an  objective 
case  ;  as,  "  Henry  has  learned  his  lesson^ 

The  term  transitive  signifies  passing  over. 

2.  An  intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  govern 
an  objective  case;  as,  "  He  is;"  — "  The  horse  runs.^' 

Rkm.  —  There  are  some  verbs  which  may  be  used  either  transi- 
tively or  intransitively,  the  construction  alone  determining  to  which 
class  they  belong. 

§  85,   Transitive  verbs  have  two  forms,  called  the  ac- 
ive  and  i\\Q  passive  voice.j 

What  other  uses  have  verbs  ?  Into  what  general  classes  are  verba 
divided  1  What  is  a  transitive  verb  1  Examples.  What  is  an  intransi- 
tive verb  1     Examples.    What  two  forms  have  transitive  verbs  ? 

iefinition  here  adopted  is  based  on  the  most  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
\his  part  of  speech  ;  and  is  substantialU-  the  same  as  that  of  Priestley,  Blair, 
Harris,  Beattie,  Crombie,  Andrews  and  Stoddard,  the  British  Grammar, 
Rees's  Encyc,  Brewster's  Encyc,  Grant,  Sutcliffe,  M'CuUoch,  Bullions, 
Fletcher,  Cooper,  Goklsbury,  Frost,  Parkhurst,  Butler,  Hart,  aud  others. 

*  "  The  proper  division  of  verbs  is  into  transitive  and  intransitive ;  for 
this  distinction  is  practical,  and  has  an  effect  in  the  formation  of  sentences, 
which  is  not  true  of  the  other  distinctions."  —  Goodenow. 

"  This  classification  of  verbs  is  founded  on  their  use  in  the  construction 
of  sentences."  —  Frazee. 
y'  The  division  of  words  into  transitive  and  intransitive  is  also  adopted  in 

the  grammars  of  Arnold,  Webster,  M'CuUoch,  Hart,  Crane,  Frost,  Butler, 
Bullions,  Counon,  R.  W.  Green,  Reed,  Perley,  Ussher,  Fuller,  Staniford, 
Bingham,  Locke,  Ticknor,  Lindsay,  Earl,  Spear,  Storj-,  Webber,  Nutting, 
Cobb,  and  others. 

t  "  Active  and  passive  do  not  denote  two  different  kinds  of  verb,  but  on« 
kind  under  two  different  forms,  denomnated  the  active  aud  passive  voice." 
"  — Bullio7is. 

"It  needs  no  argimieat  to  prove  that  'I  am  struck'  is  just  as  really  a 
modification  of  to  strike,  as  'I  itave  struck''  is  ;  and  yet,  under  the  old  clas- 
sification of  active,  passive,  and  neuter,  the  pupil  was  taught  to  consider 
these  forms  as  two  verbs  belonging  to  diflerent  classes."  —  iJart. 


68  ETTMOLOGT. 

1.  The  active  voice  rej)resents  the  subject  or  nommative 
as  acting  upon  some  object. 

2.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  nominative  as  being 
acted  upon. 

Eem.  1.  —  In  the   sentence,  "  Cssar  conquered   Pompey,"   the 

verb  conquered  represents  the  nominative   Cccsar  as  acting  upon 

tlie  object  Pompey.     The  verb  conquered  is  therefore  in  the  active 

voice.     But  in  the  expression,  "  Pompey  was  conquered  by  Cassar," 

the  verb  loas  conquered  represents  the  nominative  Pomjiey  as  being 

acted  upon.     The  verb  was  conquered  is  therefore  in  the  passive 

voice. 

[When  a  verb  is  said  to  be  transitive,  and  :io  mention  is  made  of  the 
voice,  it  is  understood  to  be  in  tlie  active  voice.  The  passive  voice  of  a 
transitive  verb  is  often  denominated  a  passive  verb.] 

Rem.  2.  —  A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  is  composed  of  the  per- 
fect participle  of  a  transitive  verb,  and  one  of  tlie  forms  of  the 
verb  to  be  ;  *  as,  are  heard,  were  heard,  am  heard,  to  he  heard. 

Rem.  3.  —  Most  intransitive  verbs  do  not  admit  of  the  passive 
form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  Very  great  abuses  are  crejit  into 
tliis  entertainment,"  it  would  be  better  to  say,  "  Very  great  abuses 
have  crept  into  this  entertainment"  But  the  verbs  come  and  go, 
and  perhaps  a  few  others,  may,  in  some  cases,  properly  assume  the 
passive  form;  as,  "The  time  is  come." — Channing.  "The  sharp 
touches  of  the  chisel  are  gone  from  the  rich  tracery  of  the  arches." 
—  Irving.  Verbs  of  this  description  are  usually  denominated  new- 
ter  passive  verbs. 

§   86,   Verbs  are  ,also  divided  into  regular  and  irreg- 
ular. / 

What  does  the  active  voice  represent  1  The  passive  voice  ?  IllustratA 
Of  lohat  is  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice  composed?  Examples,  What  verb$ 
do  not  generally  admit  the  passive  form  ?  Illustrate.  What  exceptions  are 
there  to  this  principle?  Examples.  Into  what  other  classes  are  verbs  di- 
vided •? 

. 41 

*  Many  respectable  grammarians  reject  the  passive  voice  of  the  verb  al- 
together ;  parsing  the  participle  by  itself,  and  thg  verb  tii  be  as  a  principal 
verb.  See  Rees's  Cyclopsedia,  and  the  Grammars  of  Nutting,  Crombie, 
S.  Oliver,  Ash,  Lewis,  and  Connon. 


VERBS.  69 

1.  A  regular  vo-h  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle  bj  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present ;  as, 
present,  love;  past,  loved;  perf.  part.,  loved;  call,  called, 
called. 

Kem.  1.  —  Eegular  A-erbs  ending  in  silent  e,  form  their  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle,  by  the  addition  of  d  only ;  and  those  ending  in  any 
other  letter,  by  the  addition  of  ed. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  verbs  hear,  pay,  say,  and  lay,  Mrhich  do  not  end  in  e,  and 
which  add  d  only  for  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participie,  are  classed 
with  irregular  verbs. 

2.  An  irregidar  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  pres 
ent ;  as,  present,  see;  past,  saw;  perf.  part.,  seen;  go, 
went,  gone. 

EXERCISES. 

§  87.  "  The  tree  grows."  —  "  Columbus  discovered  Amer- 
ica." —  "  You  were  expected."  —  "  Man  is  mortal."  —  "  We 
are  observed."  —  "  He  received  an  injury."- 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  foregoing  sentences.  Which  of  them  are 
regular  7  "Which  in-egnlar  1  Which  are  transitive  ?  Which  intransi- 
tive 1     Which  passive  1 

Name  three  regular  verbs ;  —  three  irregular. 

'  Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  transitive,  intransitive,  and 
passive  verbs. 

MODE. 

^  8S.  ^  Mode  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  manner  in 
which  the  verb  is  employed. 

Verbs   have    five    modes ;  *  —  the  indicative,  the  sulh 

What  is  a  regular  verb  1  Examples.  What  is  an  irregular  verb  * 
Examples.     What  is  mode  1    Enumerate  the  different  modes. 


*  The  recognition  of  yotential  mode,  in  so  many  of  our  popular  gram- 
mars, aflbrds  a  striking  example  of  the  power  of  custom.  The  expressions, 
"It  may  rain,"  "He  may  go^"  "lean  ride,"  etc.,  are  manifestly  rfi^c/ara- 
tive ;  and  tlie  verbs  may  rain,  may  go,  can  ride,  etc.,  are  appropriately 
ranked  in  the  Indicative  mode.     "I  can  -walk,"  expresses  quite  as  distinct 


70  ETYMOLOGY. 

junctive,  the   imperative,  the  infinitive,  and   the    vaHi 
cipial* 

§  89.  The  indicative  mode  is  that  which  indicates  oi 
declares,  or  asks  a  question ;  as,  He  can  learn ;  Does  ha 
learyi  ?     Can  he  learn  ? 

Rem.  1. —  The  common  form  of  the  indicative  mode  is  that 
wliich  merely  expresses  a  declaration  or  an  interrogation  ;  as,  "  He 
improves  ;  "  —  "  Will  you  go  ?  " 

Rem.  2.  —  Tlie  potential  form  of  the  indicative  is  that  which  ex- 
presses a  declaration  or  asks  a  question,  and  also  implies  possibility, 
liberty,  power,  determination,  obligation,  necessity,  etc. ;  as,  "  He  can 
walk  ;  "  —  "  We  mtist  return  ;  "  —  "  What  would  they  have  f  " 

[In  speaking  of  the  common  form  of  the  indicative,  it  will  generally 


What  is  the  indicative  mode  1  Examples.  H  IM  is  the  common  form 
of  the  indicative  mode  7     Examples.     The  potential  form  ?     Examples. 

a  declaration  as  "I  walk."     Thus,  "I  can  walk,"  declares  that  I  have  the 
power  to  walk  ;  while  "  I  walli,"  declares  the  act  of  walking. 

JIo>t  authors  who  recognize  a  potential  mode,  still  class  such  expressions 
as  "  If  I  should  go,"  with  the  subjunctive.  But  "  I  should  go,"  asserts  or 
declares  the  same  thing  that  "  If  I  should  go,"  expresses  under  a  condition; 
and  hence  the  difference  between  them  is  precisely  the  distinction  between 
the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive.  And  since  the  use  of  the  conjunction 
if,  produces  no  other  effect  than  to  change  the  sentence  from  a  declarative 
to  a  coiitlitional  form,  it  is  obvious  that  all  of  its  potential  qualities  must 
still  remain;  hence  the  clause,  "If  I  should  go,"  has  the  same  claim  to  ba 
ranked  with  the  potential,  as  "I  should  go."  If,  then,  this  form  of  the  verb 
is  cl.assed  with  the  subjunctive  mode  when  it  is  used  con rhitiov ally,  consis- 
tency would  seem  to  require  that  it  should  be  classed  with  the  iiidicative, 
when  its  use  is  declaratory. 

Do  the  expressions,  "  He  would  walk,"  "  Thev  should  learn,"  imply  v^'l 
or  obligation  more  clearly  than  "I  will  obey."  ''^Thou  shalt  not  kill,"'  "He 
night  to  leani  "  ? 

"  Tiie  mere  expressions  of  will  possibility,  \ibeity,  obligation,  etc.,  belong 
to  the  Indicative  Mode."  —  Loivth. 

"  As  to  the  potential  mode,  it  may,  I  think,  in  all  cases,  be  resolved  into 
Mther  the  indicative  or  the  sulyunctive."  —  Beatti^'s  Tlieory  of  Language. 

"  The  forms  of  expression,  lean  go,  we  may  ride,  lie  must  obey,  are  really 
declaratory,  and  properly  belong  to  the  indicative."  —  Webster. 

The  potential  mode  is 'also  rejected  by  Jamieson,  H.  Ward,  Martin,  Coote, 
Cobbett,  Lewis.  Hazlitt,  Hodgso'n,  St.  Quentin,  Bell,  ^!  rrie,  Buchanan,  Coar, 
Trinder,  Adam,  Arnold,  Higginson,  Giles,  Beall,  Pe      ,  Rof;s,  Nutting,  J.  P. 
Wilson,  Wiiiard,  Halloek,  Dearborn,  .J.  Flint,  D.  Adains,  Judson,  Pixe,  Car 
dell.  Cutler,  Baich,  French,  Spencer,  and  others. 

*  If  the  participle  is  properly  regarded  as  a  fomi  of  the  verb,  it  is  obvious 
that  it  must  be  cl.. ployed  in  some  mode.     In  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  it  j 


VERBS.  71 

oe  found  I'onvenient  to  employ  raerelv  the  term  indicative  mode :  and  in 
speaking  of  the  potential  form,  to  designate  it  as  the  potential  indicative.] 

Rem.  3. —  Were  is  sometimes  used  for  wonJd  he  or  should  be;  as,  "Ah  ! 
what  were  man,  should  Heaven  refuse  to  hear  ?  " 

Rem.  4.  —  Had  is  also  occasionally  employed  for  icoidd  have,  or  shotdd 
have ;  as,  "  Had  thought  been  all,  sweet  speech  had  [would  have]  been 
denisd." —  Young. 

§  90.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  that  which  implies  con- 
dition,  supposition,  or  uncertainty ;  as,  "If  he  had  the 
opportunitj,  he  would  improve  rapidly;"  —  "  Take  heed, 
lest  any  man  deceive  you." 

Rem.  1. — Every  verb  in  the  subjunctive  implies  two  propositions; 
the  one  principal,  and  the  other  suhordinate.  The  subordinate 
clause  is  usually  preceded  by  a  conjunction,  subjoining  it  to  the  an- 
tecedent, or  principal  clause,  on  which  it  depends.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "  I  will  remain  if  you  desire  it,"  the  dependent  clause, 
"  you  desire  it,"  is  preceded  by  the  conjunction  if,  which  subjoins  it 
to  the  principal  clause,  "  I  will  remain." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  condition  of  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  transposition,  without  the  aid  of  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  Had  he 
talce)i  the  counsel  of  friends,  he  would  have  been  saved  from  ruin." 

IlE^r.  3.  —  The  subjunctive  mode,  like  the  indicative,  admits  of 

the  potential  form ;  as,  "  He  might  improve,  If  he  would  make  the 

necessary  etfort."     See  §  89. 

"WTiat  is  t!;e  subjunctive  mode  ?  Examples.  ]Vhat  does  every  subjunc- 
tive dauseimply  ?  Illustrate.  What  modijication  in  form  does  the  subjunc- 
tive admit?     Examples. 

unifonnly  introduced  in  connection  with  the  other  modes,  and  tr  ated  in 
everv  respect  as  a  mode. 

"  1"he  participle  is  merely  a  7?iode  of  the  verb,  and  it  might  propwrly  be 
termed  the  participial  mode.'''' — Sanborn. 

"  If  modes  be  tlie  manner  of  reprrscnting  the  verb,  we  see  no  g^od  rea- 
son why  patticiplfs  should  not  be  reckr"''^  "  mode."  —  Goodenovj. 

"  That  the  participle  is  a  mere  mode  oi verb,  is  manifest,  if  our  defini- 
tion of  a  verb  be  luhnirted."  —  Lovth. 

"There  are  four  modes;  the  Infinitive,  Indicative,  Imperative,  and  Snt)- 
junctive,  to  whicli  we  may  add  the  Participles,  as  necessary  to  be  consid- 
ered together  with  the  verb."  —  Higgiii.^on. 

"  Mr.  Mzrray  contends  strenuously  for  the  participle,  as  'a  mo(le  of  tlie 
verb,'  and  yet  has  not  the  consistency  of  assigning  it  a  place  airoiig  the 
modes,  as  it  must  have,  if  it  be  any  verb  at  all."  —  Willard. 

The  participle  is  also  ranked  as  a  mole  of  the  verb  hy  Elphinst'  r  Alltx> 
and  Coniwell,  Connell,  De  Sacj',  St.  Quentiii,  Felch,  Fletcher,  >/-arner 
Way,  Fpenetr,  r"nu  o,  and  othere 


2  ETYMOLOGY. 


§  91.  The  imperative  mode  is  that  wliich  commands, 
exhorts,  entreats,  or  permits  ;  as,  *'  Go  thou  ; "  —  "  Study 
diligently ; "  —  "  Forgive  us  our  trespasses ; "  —  "  Depart 
in  peace." 

§  92.  The  infinitive  mode  is  the  root  or  first  form  of 
the  verb,  used  to  express  an  action  or  state  indefinitely  •, 
as,  to  hear,  to  speak.  It  is  generally  distinguished  by 
the  sign  to. 

Rem.  —  When  the  particle  to  is  employed  in  forming  the  infinitive,  it 
is  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  verb. 

JParticiples. 

§  93.  The  participle  is  a  mode  of  the  verb,  partaking 
«f  the  properties  of  the  verb  and  the  adjective ;  as,  see- 
ing, seen,  having  seen,  having  been  seen. 

Participles  may  be  classed  under  two  general  divisions  ; 
—  imperfect*  and  perfect. 

1.  Am  imjierfect  participle  diQnoiQ^  the  continuance  of 
an  action  or  state ;  as,  calling,  seeing,  being  seen. 

Rem.  —  Imperfect  participles  relate  to  present,  past,  or  future 

What  is  jhe  imperative  mode  ?  Examples.  The  infinitive  ?  Exam- 
ples. How  is  the  infinitive  generally  distinguished  1  What  is  the  par- 
ticiple ?  Exair  oles.  Into  what  general  classes  are  participles  divided  1 
Wha'  is  an  iiiip  -.rfect  participle  7  Examples.  To  what  time  do  imperfect 
participles  relate  * 


*  "  The  disti't.g-uishivg  characteristic  of  this  participle  is,  that  it  denotPS 
an  unfinished  and  progressive  state  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion  ;  it  is 
therefore  properly  denoniinated  the  imperfect  participle."  — G.  Brown. 

"  All  that  is  peculiar  to  the  participles  is,  that  the  one  signifies  a  perfect, 
and  the  other  an  imperfect  action."  —  Pickbourn's  Dissertation  on  the  Eng- 
lish Verb. 

"  The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians  make  be- 
tween the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the  continuation  of  the  action, 
passion,  or  state,  denoted  by  the  verb ;  and  the  other,  to  the  completion  ot 
It."  —  Murray. 

See  also  Grant,  Baldwin,  Lewis,  M'Culloch,  Churchill.  Connon,  Butler 
and  R.  \V.  Green. 


VKRB8.  73 

time,  acconling  as  they  are  connected  with  verbs  in  the  present, 
past,  or  future  tense. 

2.  A  perfect  participle  denotes  the  completion  of  an 
action  or  state  ;  as,  called^  seen,  having  seen. 

§  94.  Participles  are  also  divided  into  two  other  classes,  called 
simple  and  compound. 

1.  A  simple  participle,  is  a  participle  that  consists  of  only  one 
word  ;  as,  doing,  done. 

2.  A  compound  'participle  is  a  participle  that  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  words ;  as,  being  seen,  Tiaviug  seen,  having  been  seen.  Being 
teen  is  a  compound  imperfect  participle ;  having  seen  and  having 
been  seen  are  compound  perfect  participles. 

RE>r.  1 .  —  Participles,  like  other  mot'Ufications  of  the  verb,  are 

either  ti  ansitive  or  intransitive.     Thus,  seeing  and  having  seen  are 

transitive  ;  being  and  walking,  intransitive.     Transitive  participles 

are  also  distinguished  by  voices ;  as,  active,  seeing,  having  seen ; 

passive,  seen,  having  been  seen. 

Rem.  2.  —  Participles  often  lose  their  verbal  character,  and  become 
adjectives ;  as,  "  A  moving  spectacle ; "  —  "A  revised  edition."  They  are 
then  called  participial  adjectives. 

Rem.  3.  —  Partici])lcs  are  also  used  to  perform  the  office  of  nouns ;  as, 
"  They  could  not  avoid  submitting  to  this  influence."  When  used  in  thb 
manner,  they  are  cdWiid  participial  nouns. 

§  9.5.  Besides  the  regular  grammatical  modes  expressed  by  the  verb, 
it  is  obvious  tliat  there  must  be  numerous  other  distinctions  of  manner, 
which  can  be  indicated  only  by  the  use  of  various  modifying  words  and 
phrases ;  as,  "  The  storm  beats  violently ; "  —  "  The  horse  sleeps  standing  " 

TENSE. 

§    96.    Tense  is  the  distinction  of  time. 

Verbs  have  six  tenses ;  —  the  present,  the  past*  the 

What  is  a  perfect  participle  ?  Examples.  A  simple  participle  ?  Exam' 
:iles.  A  compound  participle  ?  Examples.  Name  a  transitive  par*  [ciple  ;  — 
mtransitive.  A  participle  in  the  active  voice;  —  in  the  passive.  What  is 
tense  ?    Enumerate  the  tenses. 

*  The  names  of  the  tenses  adopted  in  this  treatise,  have  the  sanction  of 
Connell,  Skillorn,  Hilcv,  Butler,  Perley,  Goodenow,  Fletcher,  and  Farnum. 

'4 


74  ETYMOLOST. 

future  J  the  present  perfect^  the  pait  perfect,  and   the 
future  perfect. 

1.  The  presepJ  tense  denotes  present  time ;  as,  I  write  ; 
I  am  writing. 

2.  The  past  (imperfect^  tense  denotes  indefinite  past 
time  ;  as,  I  wrote  ;  I  was  writing. 

3.  Tlha  future  tense  denotes  indefinite  future  time  ;  as, 
1  shall  write  ;  I  shall  he  wnting. 

4.  The  present  perfect  (^perfect)  tense  denotes  past 
time,  and  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present ;  as,  I 
have  written  ;  1  have  been  writing. 

5.  The  past  perfect  {^pluperfects  tense  denotes  past 
time  that  precedes  some  other  past  time,  to  which  it  re- 
fers ;  as,  "  When  he  had  delivered  the  message,  he  took 
his  departure." 

6.  The  future  perfect  (second  future^  tense  denotes 
future  time  that  precedes  some  other  future  time,  to  which 
it  refers ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  finished  the  letter  before  he 


arrives." 


Rem.  —  Besides  these  six  grammatical  tenses,  there  are  mimerons  other 
distinctions  of  time,  which  are  expressed  by  various  modifying  words 
and  phrases ;  as,  "  I  will  go  immediately  ; "  — "I  will  go  soon ; '"  —  "I  will 
go  in  an  hour ;"  — "  I  will  go  io-tnorrow ;"  —  "  I  will  go  in  the  course  of 
the  iceek.^' 

What  is  the  present  tense  ?  Examples.  The  past  tense  ?  Examples. 
What  is  the  future  tense  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  present  perfect 
tense  ?  Examples.  The  past  perfect  tense  1  Examples.  The  future 
perfect  tense  1    Examples. 

Similar  terms,  corresponding  with  the  signification  of  the  tenses,  are  also 
employed  by  Webster,  Frazee,  Dij,  Swett,  Felton,  Brace,  Simmonite, 
Flower,  Barrie,  and  others. 

"  Several  of  the  old  names  either  convey  no  idea,  or  an  erroneous  one. 
The  imperfect  tense  does  not,  in  one  case  of  a  hundred,  signify  an  imper- 
fect action  ;  the  perfect  tense  is  not  the  only  one  which  represents  a  fin- 
ished action;  and  if  we  speak  of  first  and  "second  turnre  tenses,  ^ve 

with  equal  proprietj'  have  first  and  second  present,  and  first  ami 
past  tenses." — Perley. 


VERBS.  7a 


NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

§  97.    Verbs  have  t\YO  numbers  and  three  persons. 
The  person  and  number  of  a  verb  are  always  the  sam« 
as  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject  or  nomhiative. 

Hem.  1.  —  In  the  simple  form  of  the  present  and  past  indicative,  the 
second  person  singular  of  the  solemn  style  ends  regularly  in  st  or  est,  as 
Thou  seest,  Thou  hearest,  Thou  saivest,  Thou  heardest ;  and  the  third  per 
sou  singular  of  the  present,  iu  th  or  eth,  as  He  saith,  Ho  loveth. 

Rem.  2.  —  In  the  simple  form  of  the  present  indicative,  the  third  per- 
son singular  of  the  common  or  familiar  style,  ends  in  s  or  cs;  as.  He  sleeps, 
He  rises. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  first  person  singular  of  the  solemn  style,  and  the  first 
and  second  persons  singular  of  the  common  style,  have  the  same  form  aa 
the  three  persons  plural. 

Rem.  4.  —  In  forming  the  compound  tenses  of  the  verb,  the  auxil- 
iaries only  are  varied. 

Rexi.  5.  —  Be  and  ought,  and  the  auxiliaries  shall,  loill,  may,  can,  must, 
are  irregular  in  their  modifications  to  denote  person. 

Rem.  6.  —  The  verb  need  is  often  used  in  the  third  person  singular  of 
jhe  indicative  present,  witliout  the  personal  termination. 

Examples:  —  "  The  truth  need  not  be  disguised." — Charming.  "It 
need  only  be  added." — Prescott.  "  It  need  not  be  said." — E.  Everett. 
'■  There  was  one  condition,  which  need  not  be  mentioned." — Irving. 
"Nothing  need  be  concealed." — Cooper.  "Time  need  not  be  wast- 
ed."—  G.B.Emerson.  "No  other  historian  of  that  country  wtrd 
be  mentioned." — Ilaltam.  "  The  reader  need  not  be  fold." — Paley. 
"  This  is  a  species  of  inconsistency,  of  which  no  m.nn  need  bo 
ashamed." — Kdinlmrgh  Review.  "  It  need  not  surprise  us." — .7.  G 
Lock-hart.  "  It  need  scarcely  be  said." — X.  A.  Beview.  "  Xeed  a 
bewildered  traveller  wish  for  more "?  " —  Wordsuxfrth. 

Rem.  7.  —  The  subjunctive  of  all  verbs,   except  he,  takes  the 

same  form  as  the  indicative.     Goocl  writers  were  formerly  much 

accustomed   to  cb-op  the  personal  termination  in  the  subjunctive 

present,  and  -write,  "  If  he  have,"  "  If  he  deny,"  etc.,  for  "  If  he 

Jia-t,"  "  If  he  denies,"  etc. ;  but  this  termination  is  now  generally 

retained,  unless  an  auxiliary  is  understood.*     Thus,  "  If  he  hear," 

How  many  persons  and  numbers  have  verbs  ?  With  what  do  the  per- 
son and  number  of  a  verb  correspond  ?  What  is  said  resvecting  thefom 
ofvabs  in  the  subjunctive  mode  ?     Illustrate. 


*  "T^ie  use  of  the  present  tense  of  tlic  subjunctive,  without  the  personal 
terminations,  w.as  formerly  very  general.     It  w.is  reserved  for  the  classical 


76  ETYMOLOGY. 

may  properly  be  used  for  "  If  he  shall  hear  "  or  "  If  he  should  hear," 
when  the  auxiliary  shall  or  should  Is  manifestly  implied  ;  but  when 
no  such  ellipsis  is  obvious,  the  indicatiYC  form,  "  If  he  hears  "  is  to 
be  preferred.     See  §  107,  Rem.  2, 

Examples:  —  "  If  tlie  dramatist  attempts  to  create  a  being  answering 
to  one  of  these  descriptions,  he  fails." — Macaulay.  "  If  he  takes 
the  tone  of  invective,  it  leads  him  to  be  uncharitable." — Southey. 
"  If  courage  intrinsically  consists  in  the  defiance  of  danger  and 
pain,  the  life  of  the  Indian  is  a  continual  exhibition  of  it."-^Irving. 
"  He  must  feign,  if  he  does  not  feel,  the  spirit  and  inspiration  of 
the  place." — Story.  "If  any  pupil  ^ii'/s  to  reach  this  point,  he  is 
said  to  fall  below  the  standard." — N.  A.  Review.  Other  authorities 
might  be  multiplied  at  pleasure. 

Rem.  8.  —  Infinitives  and  participles  have  neither  number  nor 
person. 

CONJUGATION. 

§  98.  TkQ  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combi- 
nation and  arrangement  of  its  several  modes,  tenses,  num- 
bers, and  persons. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

§  99.  The  three  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the 
present  tense.,  the  past  tense,  and  the  perfect  participile. 
These  are  called  the  principal  or  radical  parts,  because  all 
the  other  parts  are  formed  from  them. 

AUXILIARIES. 

^  100.  An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  that  is  used  to  aid  m 
the  conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

Wl^at  propniies  are  icanting  in  injinitives  and  participles  ?  "What  is  the 
conjiiga-on  of  a  verb  1  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ?  Why 
so  called  ?     A\Tiat  is  an  auxiliary  verb  1 

writers  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  lay  asicle  the  pedantic  forin',  if  ht 
go,  if  it  proceed.  t//niigh  he  come,  etc.,  and  restore  tlie  nntive  idiom  f  f  the 
langu-ige.'' —  WcSist^:r. 


VERBS.  77 

Hem.  —  TLe  auxiliai-ies  are  do,  he,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can, 
with  their  Yariat.^ns,  and  must,  which  has  no  variation.  Do,  he, 
have,  and  will,  are  also  used  as  pnncipid  verbs.  Thus,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  I  have  heard  the  news,"  have  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
principal  verb  heard ;  but  in  the  sentence,  "  I  have  no  time  to  de- 
vote to  trifles,"  have  is  employed  as  a  principal  verb. 


Shall  and  Will. 

§  101.  In  affirmative  sentences,  shall,  in  the  first  person,  simply 
foretells:  as,  "I  shall  write."  In  the  second  and  third  persons, 
shall  is  used  potentially,  denoting  a  promise,  command,  or  determina- 
tion :  as,  "  You  shall  be  rewarded  ; "  —  "  Thou  shalt  not  kiU ;  "  — 
"  He  shall  be  punished."  TFi7/,  in  the  first  person,  is  used  poten- 
tially, denoting  a  promise  or  determination ;  as,  "  I  xcUl  go,  at  all 
hazards."  In  the  second  and  third  persons,  will  simply  foretells ; 
as,  "  You  will  soon  be  there  ; "  —  "  He  tcill  expect  you." 

§  102.  In  interrogative  sentences,  shall,  in  the  first  person,  may 
either  be  used  potentially  to  inquire  the  will  of  the  party  addressed, 
as,  "  Shall  I  bring  you  another  book  ? "  or  it  may  simply  ask 
whether  a  certain  event  will  occur,  as,  "  Shall  I  arrive  in  time  for 
the  cars  ?  "  "\Mien  shall  is  used  interrogatively  in  the  second  per- 
son, it  simply  denotes  fiituritj' ;  as,  "  Shall  you  be  in  New  York 
next  week  ?  "  Shall,  employed  interrogatively  in  the  third  person, 
has  a  potential  signification,  and  is  used  to  inquire  the  will  of  the 
party  addressed ;  as,  "  Shall  John  order  the  carriage  ?  "  Will,  used 
Interrogatively  in  the  second  person,  is  potential  in  its  signification ; 
as,  "  Will  you  go  ?  "  Will  may  be  used  interrogatively  in  the  third 
pei'son,  to  denote  mere  futurity,  as,  "  Will  the  boat  leave  to-day  ?  " 
or  it  may  have  a  potential  signification,  inquiring  the  will  of  the 
party  spoken  of,  as  "  Will  he  hazard  his  life  for  the  safety  of  his 
friend  ?  " 

§  103.  It  the  subjunctive  mode,  shall,  in  all  the  persons,  denotes 

Enumera.i  the  a^txiliaries.  Which  of  these  are  also  used  as  principal 
verbtf 


78  EXrMOLOGT. 

mere  futurity ;  as,  "  If  thy  brother  shall  trespass  against  thee,  go 
and  tell  him  his  fault."  Will,  on  the  contrary,  is  potential  in  ita 
signification,  having  respect  to  the  will  of  the  agent  or  subject;  as, 
"  If  he  unll  strive  to  improve,  he  shall  be  duly  rewarded." 

§  104,  The  following  conjugation  of  shall  and  will  is  inserted  to 
give  the  pupil  a  more  distinct  idea  of  the  proi)er  use  of  these 
auxiliaries :  — 

Shall  and  Will. 

Affirmative. 

•  Simple    Indicative. 

Singitlar.  Plural. 

Isl  Person,      I  shall  1.      We  shall 

„  ,  r)  (  You  will  o    (  You  will 

2d  Person,    j  Thou  wilt  ^'  j  Ye  will 

3d  Person,      He  will  8.      They  will 

Potential    Indicattve.  '' 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      I  will  1.      We  will 


_    5  You  shall  „    (YoushaU 

^'  I  Thou  Shalt  ^'   I  Ye  shall 

S.      He  shall  8.      They  shall 

Interrogative. 
Simple   Indicatiye. 


Singular. 

Flurd. 

1.      Shall  I  ? 

1.      Shall  we  ? 

.    5  Shall  you? 
^-  1  Shalt  thou? 

Q    ('Shall  you? 
^'  I  Shall  ye  ? 

8.      Will  he  ? 

3.      WiU  they  ? 

Which  of  the  verbs  in  the  follounng  sentences  are  simple  indicatives,  and 
which  have  a  potential  signification  f  —  "I  will  go  ;  "  —  "  I  shall  go  ; "  — 
"He  shall  obey;"  — "Will  you  go?"  — "Will  they  go?"  — "You 
should  improve  your  time."  [Other  similar  questions  respecting  these 
auxiliaries,  should  be  added  by  the  teacher  j 


VERBS. 


t9 


Potential   Indicativ*. 


Sitigular. 

Sliall  I  ? 
(  Will  you  ? 
I  Wilt  thou  ? 

Shall  or  wiU  he? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 

Shall  we  ? 
(  Will  you  ? 
I  Will  ye  ? 

Shall  or  will  tbfiv  ? 


Subjunctive. 
Simple    Subjunctive. 


Singular. 

If  I  shall 
( If  you  shall 
I  If  thou  shalt 

If  he  shall 


Plural. 
If  we  shall 
If  you  shall 
If  ye  shall 
If  they  shall 


Foteutial    Subjunctive. 


Singular. 

IflwiU 
you  will 
thou  wilt 

If  he  will 


Ik 


8. 


Plural. 

If  we  wiQ 
C  If  you  will 
"{If  ye  will 

If  they  will 


Should  and  "Would 


Affirmative. 
Simple   Indicative 


Singular. 
I.      I  should 
_    (  You  would 
^-  jThouwouldst 
S.      He  would 


PluraL 

We  should 
5  You  would 
(  Ye  would 

They  would 


Potential    Indicative. 


Singular. 

I  should  or  would 
(  You  should  or  would 
\  Thou  shouldst  or  wouldst 

He  should  or  would 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 

We  should  or  would 
f  You  should  or  would 
\  Ye  should  or  would 

They  should  or  would 


0 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Interrogative. 
Simple    Indicative. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 

Should  I  ? 
C  Should  you  ? 
\  Shouldst  thou  ? 

Would  he  ? 


Plural 
1.      Should  we  ? 
^    (  Should  you '.' 

(  Should  ye  ? 
3.      Would  they  ? 


Potential    Indicative, 


1. 
2. 
S. 


Singular. 

Should  or  would  I  ? 
f  Should  or  would  you  ? 
\  Shouldst  or  wouldst  thou  ? 

Should  or  would  he  ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 

Should  or  would  we  ? 
(  Should  or  would  you  ? 
\  Should  or  would  ye  ? 

Should  or  would  they  ? 


\ 
2 
3. 


Subjunctive. 

Simple  Subjunctive. 

Singular.  Plural. 

If  I  should  1.  If  we  should 

(  If  you  should  <>  S^  jou  should 

•   I  If  thou  shouldst  ''•  I  If  ye  should 

If  he  should  3.  If  they  should 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Potential    Subjunctive. 

Singular.  Plural. 

If  I  would  1.      If  we  would 

( If  you  would 
( If  ye  would 
If  they  would 


f  If  you  would 
( If  thou  wouldst 


uaii 

If  he  would  3. 

Rem.  —  WiU,  used  as  a  principal  verb,  is  conjugated  regularly. 

§105.  Correct  Examples. 

"  Yes,  my  son,  I  wUl  point  out  the  way,  and  my  soul  shall  gaida 
yours  in  the  ascent;  for  we  tcill  take  our  flight  together." —  trold- 
smiih.  "  The  life  of  a  solitary  man  will  certainly  be  miserable,  but 
not  certainly  devout."  —  Johnson.  "The  man  who  feels  himself 
ignorant,  sAoiiW  at  least  be  modest"  —  Ibid.  "He  that  reould  be 
superior  to  external  influences,  must  first  become  superior  to  his 
own  passions."  —  Ibid. 


VEBBS.  SI 

§106.  Incorrect  Examples. 

"  TMiat  we  conceive  clearly,  and  feel  strongly,  we  wiU  naturally 
express  with  clearness  and  strength."  —  Blair.  "A  limb  shall 
swing  upon  its  hinge,  or  play  in  its  socket,  many  hundred  times  in 
an  hour,  for  sixty  years  together,  without  diminution  of  its  agility. 
—  Paley.  "We  fadve  much  to  say  on  the  subject  of  this  life,  and 
will  often  find  ourselves  obliged  to  dissent  from  the  opinions  of  the 
bic^rapher."  —  Macaula^ . 


§  107.   CONJUGATION  OF  THE  HIIIEGULAR  VERB 

TO  BE. 

PRINCIPAL   PAET8. 

Present,  Am.     Past,  "Was.     Perf.  ParticipUy  Been. 

IXDICATITE  MODE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular,  Plural 

1st  Person,      I  am  1.      We  are 

2d  Person     5  ^ou  are  „    |  You  are 

M  ±^erson,    |  rj,^^^  ^^^  I.  j  ye  are 

Zd  Person,      He  is  3.      They  are 

Bem.  1 . —  In  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  in  the  works  of  our  early  wii- 
terj,  be  is  sometimes  used  for  are ;  as,  "  Wo  be  true  men." 


PAST 

TENSB 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.      I  was 
„    S  You  were 
^'  \  Thou  wast 
8.      He  was 

1.      We  were 
n    (  You  were 

\  Ye  were 
8.      They  were 

Correct  the  erroneous  examples  relating  to  the  use  of  shall  and  will,  and 
show  why  they  are  erroneous.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb 
to  be?  Conjugate  this  verb  in  the  indicative  mode,  and  present  tense ;— 
past  tense 


82  ETTMOLOGT. 


FUTURE   TENSE. 

Singular .  Plural. 

1.      I  shall  be  1.      We  shall  bo 

„  (  You  will  be  „  (  You  will  be 

^  (  Thou  wilt  be  ^'  \  Ye  will  be 

8.      He  will  be  8.      Thej  wiU  be 


PKESENT  PEBFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      I  have  been  1.      We  have  been 

_    J  You  have  been  „  (  You  have  been 

I  Thou  hast  been  "  \  Ye  have  been 

S.      He  has  been  3.      They  have  been 

PAST   PEKFBCT   TENSE. 

Singular,  Plural. 

1.      1  had  been  1.      We  had  been 

q    (  You  had  been  _    5  ^^^  ^^^  h^&n 

'  \  Thou  hadst  been  "    (  Ye  had  been 

8.      He  had  been  8.      They  had  been 

FUTUBE   PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

i.       I  shall  have  been  !•      We  shall  have  been 

„    5  You  will  have  been  „  5  ^^^  ^^  have  been 

*   (  Thou  wilt  have  been  '  (  Ye  will  have  been 

8.      He  will  have  been  2.  They  will  have  been 


CoDJ agate  the  verb  to  he,  in  the  indicative  mode,  future  tease; — ^present 
perfect  teuse ; — past  perfect  tense ; — future  perfect  tense. 


VERBS. 


83 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


1. 

2. 


Singular. 

If  I  am 

you  are 
thou  art 
If  he  is 


<lf 

IK 


Ik 


PBESENT   TSH8B.  ■ 


1. 

2. 
S. 


1. 

2. 
S. 


1. 


Singular. 

If  Ibe 

5  If  you  be 

\  If  thou  be 

If  he  be 


Singular. 

If  I  was 

( If  you  were 

( If  thou  wast 

If  he  was 


Plural. 

If  we  are 
you  are 
ye  are 

If  they  are 

•Ancient  Style. 

Plural 
If  we  be 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


( If  you  be 
IK       ' 


ye  be 
If  they  bo 


PAST   TENSE. 


(If 


Plural. 

If  we  were 
you  were 
ye  were 

If  they  were 


FUTURE   TENSE. 


qg 


Singular. 

If  I  shaU  be 
you  shall  be 
thou  shalt  be 

If  he  shall  be 


Plural. 

1.     If  we  shall  be 

2    5  ^  7^^  ^^^  ^® 

■   I  If  ye  shall  be 
3.      If  they  shall  be 


FBJ:S£NT  fesfeot  tbnbb. 
Singular.  PluraL 

If  I  have  been  1.      If  we  have  been 

you  have  been  „    (If  you  have  been 

thou  hast  been  '  ^  If  ye  have  been 

If  he  has  been  8.     If  they  have  been 


FAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 


Singular. 

If  I  had  been 
( If  you  had  been 
( If  thou  hadst  been 

If  he  had  been 


Plural. 
1.     If  we  had  been 

^'  t  If  ye  had  been 
8.      If  they  had  been 


Conjugate  the  verb  tobCfia  the  subjunctive  mode,  present  tense;— 
preseut  teuse  aud  ancient  style; — ^paat  tense; — future  tense; — present 
perfect  tense ; — past  pertect  tense. 


84  ETYMOLOGY. 


FUTDBE   PEEFECT  TENSE. 


Singular.  Plural. 

1.      If  I  shall  have  been  1.      K  we  shall  hare  been 


2. 


( If  you  shall  have  been  „     (If  yi 

\  If  thou  shalt  have  been  '    (  If  yi 


ou  shall  have  been 
e  shall  have  been 


3.      If  he  shall  have  been  3.      If  they  shall  have  been 

HTPOTHETICAL  FORM.* 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      If  I  -n-ere  1.      If  we  were 

2     (If  you  wert  „     (If  you  were 

\  If  thou  wert  '    ( If  ye  were 

3.      If  he  were  3.      If  they  were 

Kem.  2. —  This  form  of  the  verb  he  is  commonly  used,  in  the 
Sdbjunctive  mode,  to  express  a  supposition  or  hypothesis.  When 
employed  in  a  negative  sentence,  it  implies  an  affirmation ;  as,  "  K 
it  were  not  so,  I  would  have  told  you."  A\Tien  used  in  an  af- 
firmative sentence,  it  implies  a  negation ;  aa,  "  If  it  were  possible, 
they  would  deceive  the  very  elect"  The  time  denoted  by  this  use 
of  the  verb,  is  sometimes  present,  and  sometimes  indefinite.  See 
§  97,  Rem.  7. 

Rem.  3 .  —  The  past  subjunctive  of  other  verbs  is  often  employed 
in  a  similar  manner ;  as,  "I  would  walk  out,  if  it  did  not  rain;"-^ 
"  If  I  had  the  power,  I  would  assist  you  cheerfully." 

Rem.  4.  —  The  potential  form  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  is  the 
same  in  most  of  the  tenses,  as  the  potential  form  of  the  indicative. 
The  only  difference  between  them  is  in  the  use  of  the  auxiliaries, 
shall  and  will.     See  the  conjugation  of  shall  and  mil,  §  10-1. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,  To  be  Present  perfect.  To  have  been 

Conjugate  the  verb  to  be  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  future  perfect  tense 
What  is  the  use  of  the  hypothetical  form  of  the  verb  ?  What  peculiarity  re- 
specting the  affirmative  and  negative  use  of  the  hypothetical  form  of  the  verb  f 
Examples.  What  time  is  denoted  by  it  ?  With  xchat  does  the  potential  form 
of  the  subjunctive  correspond  f  What  is  the  infinitive  present  of  the  verb 
to  be?  —  present  perfect ? 

*  See  Hiley,  Webster,  Frazee,  Butler,  Waldo,  D'Orsey,  Connon,  aad  Cranei. 


VERBS.  85 

TMPERATIYE  MODE. 

PKSSEXT  TEXSE. 

Singular,  Be,  or  [llZn  ««"'.  ^=.  -  j  S  ^ 

Rem.  7. — Though  imperatives  are  mostly  confined  to  the  second  per- 
son, they  are  sometimes  employed  in  the  lirst  and  third  persons.* 

Exami^les: — "Do  we  all  holy  rites." — Shak.  "Come,  go  we  theu 
together." — Ibid.  "■Proceed  we  to  mark  more  particularly." — 
Bp.  Wilson.  " 5e  not  the  muse  ashamed." — Thomson.  "This  be 
thy  just  cu-cumference,  0  world." — Milton.  "Thy  kingdom  come." 
—Matt.  6 :  10. 

"  My  soul,  turn  from  them ;  turn  we  to  surrey 
Where  rougher  climes  a  nobler  race  display." — Goldsmith, 


PARTICIPLES. 
Imp^fect,  Being  Perfect,  |  ^^^^  ^^^^ 

§  108.  Synopsis  of  the  verb  To  B  e. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present,  I  am  Present  perfect,  I  have  been 

Past,       I  was  Past  perfect,       I  had  been 

Future,   I  shall  be  Future  perfect,  I  shall  have  teen 

SUBJUNCTIVE, 

Present  tense,  If  I  am 

Present  tense,  ancient  style,  If  I  be 
Past  tense.  If  I  was 

Future  tense,  K  I  shall  be 


Give  the  imperative  ; — the  participles.     Repeat  the  synopsis  of  the  verb 
io  be,  in  the  common  form  of  the  indicative ; — in  the  subjunctive. 

*  *'  In  imitation  of  other  languages  which  have  two  or  three  persons  ia 
the  imperative  mode,  we  occasionally  meet  with  verbs  used  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  first,  but  more  frequently  in  the  tliird  person." — Sa:ibom 
See  also  Kirkham,  Frazee,  Perley,  E.  W.  Green,  Gorney,  Crane,  Grant,  S 
Oliver,  and  Coote. 


86 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present  perfect^ 
Past  perfect^ 
Future  perfect. 
Hypothetical  form. 


If  I  have  been 
K  I  had  been 
If  I  shall  ha^e  been 
If  I  were 


INFINITIVE. 

Present^  To  be  Present  perfect^  To  have  been 

IMPEKATIVE. 

Present^  Be,  or  Be  you  or  thou 

PABTIOIFLES. 

Imperfect^  Being  Perfect,  Been 


§109     CONJUGATION   OF  THE   KEGULAR  VERB 
TO  LOVE,  IN  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


Present,  Love. 


PEINCIPAL  PABTS. 

Past,  Loved.  Perf  part..  Loved. 


INDICATIYE  MODE. 


S. 


2. 
S. 


Singular. 

I  love 
("  You  love 
\  Thou  lovest 

He  loves 


Singular. 

I  loved 
("  You  loved 
\  Thou  lovedst 

He  loved 


PBESEMT  TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
8. 


Plural. 

We  love 
C  You  love 
{  Ye  love 

They  love 


PAST  TBNSB. 


Plural. 
1.      We  loved 
„    5  Yo*^  loved 
'•  t  Ye  loved 
8.      They  loved 


Repeat  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  to  6«  in  the  infinitive.  Give  the  im- 
perative ;  the  participles.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb  to 
hvef  Conjugate  this  verb  in  the  indicative  mode,  present  tense;— 
past  tense. 


VERBS.  87 

rUTUBE   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1       I  shall  love  1.      We  shall  love 

„    (  You  -will  love  „    (  You  will  love 

I  Thou  wilt  love  \  Ye  will  love 

S.      He  wUl  love  8,      They  will  love 

PRESENT  PEKFECT  TENSE. 

SingiJar.  Plural. 

1.      I  have  loved  1.      "We  have  loved 

a    5  Y°^  hiLve  loved  „    (  You  have  loved 

\  Thou  hast  loved  *  \  Ye  have  loved 

8.      He  has  loved  8.      They  have  loved 

PAST   PBBFECT  TEN8K. 

Sinffular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved  1.  We  had  loved 

(  You  had  loved  „  (  You  had  loved 
(  Thou  hadst  loved         '  \  Ye  had  loved 

8.  He  had  loved  8.   They  had  loved 


2 


FUTUKB  PEKTECT  TENSE. 

Singtdar.  PluraL 

1.     I  shall  have  loved  1.      We  shall  have  loved 

2    (  You  will  have  loved  „  5  ^ou  will  have  loved 

\  Thou  wilt  have  loved  *  (  Ye  will  have  loved 

8.     He  will  have  loved  8.      They  wiU  have  loved 

Keil — The  subjunctive  of  all  verbs,  except  to  be,  has  the  same  form  aa 
the  iadicative.     See  §  97,  Rem.  1. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 
Present,  To  love  Present  perfect,  To  have  loved 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE, 

Singular,  Love,  »r  |  ^^  f"'  Plural,  Love,  o,  |  ^^^l  J- 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect,  Loving  Perfect,  Having  loved 

Conjugate  the  verb  to  love  in  the  indicative  modej  future  tense ; — present 
perfect;  —  past  perfect;  —  future  perfect  What  is  send  respecting  tht 
form  of  the  potential  indicative  f  —  of  the  subjunctive  f  Give  the  infinitive 
present; — present  peifect; — the  imperative;  —  the  participles. 


88 


ETYMOLOGY. 


§  110.  Si/nopsis  of  T  0   Love. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present,  I  love  Present  perfect,  I  liave  loved 

Past,        I  loved  Past  perfect,        I  had  loved 

Future,    I  shall  love      Future  perfect,    I  shall  have  Icved 

INFINITIVE. 

Present,  To  love  Present  perfect,  To  have  loved 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Love,  or  love  thou  or  you 

PAETICIPLE3. 

Imperfect,  Loving  Perfect,  Having  loved 


§111.   CONJUGATION  OF  TO  ZOFE,  IN  THE  PASSIVE 

VOICE. 


IXDICATIVE  MODE. 


Singular. 

I  am  loved 
(  You  are  loved 
(  Thou  art  loved 

He  is  loved 


PRESENT   TEN8E. 
1. 

2. 


Plural. 

TVe  are  loved 
(  You  are  loved 
(  Ye  are  loved 

They  ai-e  loved 


PAST   TKNSK. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 

I  was  loved 
(  You  were  loved 
(  Thou  wait  loved 

He  was  loved 


Plural. 

"We  were  loved 
(  You  were  loved 
(  Ye  were  loved 

They  were  loved 


1. 


FUTCHE   TENSE. 
Singular. 
I .      I  shall  be  loved 
q    (  You  will  be  loved 

I  Thou  wUt  be  loved 
3.      He  will  be  loved 


3. 


Plural. 

"We  shall  be  loved 
J  You  will  be  loved 
(  Ye  will  be  loved 

They  will  be  loved 


Give  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  to  love.  Conjugate  the  passive  voice  of 
the  verb  to  love,  in  the  indicative  mode,  present  tense;  — past  tense;  — 
fauire  tense. 


VERBS.  8£ 

PRESENT    PERi'ECX    TENSE. 

SiiHjulai .  Plural. 

1.   I  have  been  loved  1.   We  have  been  loved 

5  You  have  been  loved  „  5  You  have  been  loved 

I  Thou  hast  been  loved  '  (  Ye  have  been  loved 

3.   He  has  been  loved  3.   They  have  been  loved 

PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Sinr/ular.  Plural. 

1.      I  had  been  loved  1.      We  had  been  loved 

„     (  You  had  been  loved  „     (  You  had  been  loved 
■    l  Thou  hadst  been  loved  *  \  Ye  had  been  loved 

3.      He  had  been  loved  3.      They  had  been  loved 

FUTURE   PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      I  shall  have  been  loved  1.      We  shall  have  been  loved 

(  Y''ou  will  have  been  loved  „  (  You  will  have  been  loved 
I  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved       '    (  Ye  will  have  been  loved 

3.      He  will  have  been  loved  3.      They  will  have  been  loved 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,  To  be  loved         Present  perfect,  To  have  been  loved 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

„.       7      T>    1       1         (Be  you  loved 
Singular,  Be  loved,  or  |  g^  [^^^  j^^.^^ 

Plural,     Be  loved,  or  |  ^^  f^^^^^^ 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect,  Being  loved         Perfect,  |  ^°;^g  ^^^^  1^^^^ 

§112.  Synopsis  of  To  be   Loved. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present,  I  am  loved  Pres.  perfect,  I  have  been  loved 

Past,        I  was  loved  Past  perfect,  I  had  been  loved 

Future,    I  shall  be  loved     Fut.  perfect,    I  shall  have  been  loved 


Conjugate  this  verb  in  the  indicative  mode,  present  perfect ;  —  past  per 
feet; — future  perfect  tense.     Give  the  infinitive  present;  —  present  per- 
fect ;  —  the  imperative ;  —  the  participles.     Give  the  synopsis  of  to  6« 
loved. 


90 


ETYMOLOGf. 


INFINITIVE. 

t^reseni,  To  be  loved  Present  perfect^  To  have  been  loved 

IMPKRATIVE. 

Present,  Be  loved,  or  Be  you  or  thou  loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Being  loved        Perfect,  Loved,  Having  been  loved 


§  113.  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  IRREGULAR  VERB 

TO  SEE. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


Present,  See.     Past,  Saw.     Perfect  Participle,  Seeu. 


INDICATIVE  MODE. 


PRESENT 

TENSE. 

Sitigular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  see 

1. 

We  see 

2. 

(  You  see 
(  Thou  seest 

2. 

(■  You  see 
\  Ye  see 

8. 

He  sees 

3. 

They  see 

PAST   TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  saw 

1. 

We  saw  . 

2. 

C  You  saw 
\  Thou  sawest 

2. 

(  You  saw 
1  Ye  saw 

8. 

He  saw 

8. 

They  saw 

FCTORE 

TENSE. 

Sincpdar. 

Plural. 

1. 

1  shall  see 

1. 

We  shall  see 

(  You  will  see 
1  Thou  wilt  see 

2, 

f  You  will  see 
I  Ye  will  see 

2. 

> 

3. 

He  will  see 

8. 

They  will  see 

Conjugate  the  verb  to  see,  in  the  indicative  mode,  present  tense;  — 
past  tense;  —  future  tense;  —  p-esent  perfect;  —  past  perfect;  —  future 
perfect  In  the  infinitive  present ;  —  present  perfect  In  the  impeiative. 
Give  thn  participles. 


VERES.  01 


PRESENT   PEKFECT   TENSE. 

SinrjuJar.  Plural. 

1.      I  have  seen  1.      We  have  seen 

2    i  You  have  seen  2  S  ^^^  \i&yQ  seen 

■  (  Thou  hasl  seen  "  (  Ye  have  seen 
3.      He  has  seen  3.      They  have  seen 

!AST  PERFECT   TENSE, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      I  had  seen  1.      We  had  seen 

n    <  You  had  seen  „  j  You  had  seen 

(  Thou  hadst  seen  '  \  Ye  had  seen 

3.      He  had  seen  3.      They  had  seen 

FUTURE   PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1,      I  shall  have  seen  1.  We  shall  have  seen 

2    \  You  will  have  seen  „  \  '^on  will  have  seen 

■  (  Thou  wilt  have  seen  '  (  Ye  will  have  seen 
3.      He  will  have  seen  3.      They  will  have  seen 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,  To  see  Present  perfect,  To  have  seen 

niPERATIVE  MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 

Si,^.Iar.  See,  o.  j  |-  f™  Plural,  See,  or  1 1-  J- 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect,  Seeing  Perfect,  Having  seeu 

"§<  114.  Synopsis  of  To   See. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present,  I  see  Present  perfect,  1  have  seeu 

Past,       I  saw  Past  perfect,       I  had  seen 

Future,  1  shall  see  Future  perfect,  I  shall  have  seen 

INFINITIVE. 

Presefii^  T;  see  Pi-esent  perfect,  To  have  sef-a 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  See,  or  See  thou  or  you 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Seeing  Perfect,  Having  seen 

Gil  e  the  synopsis  of  to  see. 


92 


ETYMOLOGY. 


PROGRESSIVE  FORM  OP  THE  VERB. 
§  115.  The  J} roffresstve  form  of  a  verb  is  employed  to 
denote  the  continuance  of  an  action  or  state.  It  is  com- 
posed of  an  imperfect  participle  and  one  of  the  forms  of 
the  verb  to  be;  as,  "I  am  loriting  a  letter;" — "He  "5 
study ing  French." 
*§.  116.  Synopsis  of  To  Write,  in  the  Progressive  Form, 

INDICAXrVE. 

Pres.j  I  am  writing  Pres.  perf.^  I  have  been  writing 

Past,    I  was  writing  Past  perf.,   I  had  been  writing 

Mit.,    I  shall  be  writing        Put.  per/.,    I  shall  have  been  writing 

rNFINITIVE. 

Present,  To  be  writing  Present  perfect^  To  have  been  writing 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Be  writing,  or  Be  thou  or  you  writing 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  "Writing  Perfect,  Having  been  wxiting 

POTENTIAL  FORM. 
<§>  117.  Synopsis  of  To   H e a r  in  the  Potential  Form. 
Present  or  Future,  I  may,  can,  or  must  hear 
Present,  Past,  or  Future,  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  hear 
Present  perfect  or  Future  perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  heard 
Present  perf.  or  Past  perf,  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  heard 
Rem.  1. — The  potential  use  of  the  auxiliaries  shall  and  will,  constitutea 
another  form  of  the  potential  indicative  and  potential  subjunctive.     See 

§  10^ 

Rem.  2. — In  determining  the  tense  of  a  verb  used  potentially,  the  pupil 
should  generally  be  governed  by  the  sense  of  the  passage  which  contains 
it,  without  regard  to  the  form  of  the  verb. 

THE  AUXILIARY  DO. 
§  118.  In  sentences  which  express  emphasis,  interrogation,  or  ne- 
gation, the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  subjunctive 
modes,  and  the  present  iinpera,tive,  are  often  formed  by  the  aid  of 
the  auxiliary  verb  do;  as,  "I  cZo  know  it  to  be  true;" — "iJo  you 
intend  to  return  to-morrow?" — "I  do  not  understand  you." 

What  is  the  progressive  form  of  a  verb  ?  Of  what  is  it  Composed  ? 
Give  the  synopsis  of  to  write,  in  the  progressive  form.  Give  a  synopsis 
of  the  verb  to  hear,  in  the  potential  form.  In  what  sentences  is  the  auxiliary 
do  employed  f  Examples.  What  tenses  are  often  formed  by  the  aid  of  I  ho 
auxiliary  do? 


VERBS.  03 

<  tl9.  Sgnopsis  :f  To  Hear,  with  the  Auxiliary  D o 

INDICATIVE. 

Presenl,  I  do  hear  Past,  I  did  heal 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  If  I  do  hear  Past,  If  I  did  hear 

•  IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Do  hear,  or  Do  thou  or  you  hear. 
K«m'  -    Do,  as  a  principal  verb,  is  conjugated  hJ:e  other  irregular  verbs. 

INTERROGATIVE  FORM. 

§  12(>.  tn  interrogative  sentences,  when  the  verb  has  no  auxil- 
iary, the  norainative  is  placed  after  the  verb ;  when  one  auxiliary 
is  used,  the  nominative  is  placed  between  the  auxiliary  and  the 
principal  verb  ;  and  when  more  auxiliaries  than  one  are  employed, 
the  nominative  is  placed  after  the  first. 

§  121.  Synojjsis  of  To  Hear,  used  Interrogatively. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.,  Hear  I  ?  or  Do  I  hear  ?         Pres.  perf..  Have  I  heard  ? 
Past,  Heard  I  ?  or  Did  I  hear  ?      Past  perf.,    Had  I  heard  ? 
Put.,    Shall  I  hear?  Fut.perf,    Shall  I  have  heard  ? 

NEGATIVE  FORM. 

§  122.  A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively  by  introducing  the  ad- 
verb uot  in  connection  with  it;  as,  /  knoio  not;  I  do  not  know;  I 
shall  not  have  known;  I  should  not  have  been  hioion. 

EXERCISES. 

§123.  "I  was."— "He  had  been."  — "They  think."  — 
"  "We  will  return."  —  "  Strive  to  improve."  —  "  It  is  found." 
—  "If  we  shall  hear." —  "  Thou  canst  see." —  "  If  he  had 
been."  —  "  If  he  would  learn."  —  "  Shall  I  read  H  "  —  "  Can 
it  be  understood  ?"  —  "  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother." 

Give  the  synopsis  of  to  hear,  icilh  the  aiixiliari/  do.  What  is  the  place  of 
*hc  ruminative,  in  interrogative  sentences  ?  Give  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  to 
-".ear,  itsot/  inleiroatitivcly      How  is  a  verb  coiijtigaitd  neqatively  ?     Erampler. 


94  ETYMOLOGY. 

Give  the  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person  of  each  of  the  verbs  in  the 
foregoing  sentences.  Which  of  them  are  in  the  potential  Jlrm  of  the  indica- 
tive mode  ?      Wliich  in  the  potential  form  of  the  subjunctive  ? 

Mention  a  verb  in  the  third  person  plural  of  the  past  perfect  subjunc- 
tive. One  in  tlie  present  imperative.  One  in  the  present  perfect  infini- 
tive. One  in  the  first  person  singular  of  the  future  perfect  indicative. 
One  in  the  third  person  singidar  of  the  present  or  future  indicative,  and  poten- 
tial forn\.  Mention  three  perfect  participles.  Three  imperfect  participles. 
Mention  a  verb  in  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  perfect  indica- 
tive, and  passive  voice.  Give  the  mode,  tense,  person,  number,  and  voice 
of  *Jie  following  verbs :  —  will  write  ;  —  was  written  ;  —  began ;  —  to  have 
been  seen;  —  had  heard.  [A  variety  of  similar  directions  should  be 
added  by  the  teacher.] 

Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  verbs  in  the  common  form  of 
the  indicative  and  subjunctive  modes;  —  in  the  potential  indicative  and  po- 
tential subjunctive  ; —  in  the  imperative  and  infinitive  modes; — contain- 
ing examples  of  both  imperfect  and  perfect  participles  ;  —  of  verbs  in  the 
passive  voice  ;  —  containing  examples  ©/"shall  and  will,  correctly  employed. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

§  124.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its 

past  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 

present;  as,  see,  saw,  seen;  go,  went,  gone. 

§  125.  The  following  list  comprises  neai-ly  all  the  simple  irregu- 
lar verbs  In  our  lanjinage. 

Rem.  1.  —  "WTien  more  forms  than  one  are  used  in  the  past 
tense  or  perfect  participle,  that  which  stands  first  is  to  be  preferred. 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Present.  Past  Perf.  Part. 

Abide  abode,  abided  abode,  abided 

Am  or  be  was  been 

Wliat  is  an  irregular  verb  ?  Examples.  Give  the  past  tenses  and  ^ter- 
fi'ct  participle  of  the  va-6  abide;  —  of  the  verb  am;  —  of  the  verb  awijce. 
[The  teacher  should  proceed  in  this  manner  through  the  list,  and  repeat 
the  exercise  till  the  pupils  are  able  to  name  with  readiness  the  past  tense 
and  perfect  participle  of  all  the  irregular  vcjbs.} 


"^ERBS. 


95 


Present. 

Awake 
j  Bear  (to  bring  forth) 
I  Bear  (to  sustain) ybr 

Beat 

Begin 

Bend,  «n- 

Bereave 

Beseech 

Bid,>r- 

Bind,  un-,  re- 

Bite 

Bleed 

Blow 

Break 

Breed 

Bring 

Build,  re-,  up 

Burn 

Burst 

Buy 

Cast 

Catch 

Chide 

Choose 
j  Cleave  (to  adherej 
j  Cleave  (to  split) 

Cling 

Clothe 

Come,  6e-,  crcer- 

Cost 

Creep 

Crow 

Cut 

Daret  (to  venture) 

Deal 

Dig 

Do,  un,-  mis-,  over- 

Draw,  luith- 

Dream 

Drink 

Drive 


Past. 

awoke,  awaked 

bore,  bare* 

bore,  bare* 

beat 

began 

bent,  bended 

bereft,  bereaved 

besought 

bid,  bade 

bound 

bit 

bled 

blew 

broke,  brake* 

bred 

brought 

built,  builded 

burned,  burnt 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  catchedt 

chid 

chose 

cleaved,  clave* 

clove,  cleft,  clave* 

clung 

clothed,  clad 

came 

cost 

crept 

crowed,  crew 

cut 

dared,  durst 

dealt,  dealed 

dug,  digged 

did" 

drew 

dreamed,  di'eamt 

drank 

drove,  drave** 


Perf.  part. 

awaked,  awoke 

born 

borne 

beaten,  beat 

begun 

bent 

bereft,  bereaved 

besought 

bidden,  bid 

bound 

bitten,  bit 

bled 

blown 

broken 

bred 

brought 

built,  builded 

bumcd,  burnt 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  catched* 

chidden,  chid 

chosen 

cleaved 

cloven,  cleft 

clung 

clothed,  clad 

come 

cost 

crept 

crowed 

cut 

dared 

dealt,  dealed 

dug,  digged 

done 

drawn 

dreamed,  dreamt 

drank, §  drunk 

driven 


*  Obsolete.  "f  Obsolescent.  {  Dare,  to  challenge,  is  regular. 

§  "  From  the  disagreeable  idea  excited  by  the  participle  dnuik,  drank  has 
been  long  in  polite  usage  adopted  instcf.;!  of  it." —  Walker^  the  Lpxicusrajilier. 

"  If  we  mistake  not,  drank  is  oftener  used  by  good  writers  than  drunk  or 
inaiken.^^ — Fou'le. 

Drank  is  also  given  as  a  perfect  participle  of  drink  by  Sanborn,  Webster 
Goldsbury,  Jenkins,  Kirkham,  Powers,  Fletcher,  R.  W.  Green,  Fnizee, 
Parkhurst,  Badgley,  Jones,  Davis,  Weld,  Day,  Wilting,  Beall,  and  others. 

Exnmples:  — "  Bats  and  hideous  birds  had  drank  up  the  oil  v,-]iich  nour- 
ished the  perpetual  Itimp  in  tlie  temple  of  Odin." — Jidmson.     "  The  cold 


00 


) 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Pt-eaent. 

Past. 

Per/.  Part. 

Dwell 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dwelt,  dwelled 

Eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten 

Fall,  be- 

fell 

fallen 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Fi^ht 

fought 

fought 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Freiy:ht 

freighted 

fraught,  freighted 

Get,  be-,  for- 

got,  gat* 

got,  gotten 

Gild 

gilded,  gilt 

gilded,  gilt 

Gird,  be-,  un-,  en 

girt,  girded 

girt,  girded 

Give,  Jbr-,  mis- 

gave 

given 

Go,  fore-,  wider 

went 

gone 

Grave,  en- 

graved 

graven,  graved 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Han^t 

hung 

■    hung  • 

Havo 

had 

had 

Hear,  over- 

heard 

heard 

Heai'e 

heaved,  hove 

heaved,  lioven* 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  hewed 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hold,  be-,  with  ,  up- 

held 

tield,  holdent 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Kneel 

kneeled,  knelt 

kneeled,  knelt 

Knit 

knit,  knitted 

knit,  knitted 

Know,  ./ore- 

knew 

known 

Lade§  (to  load) 

laded 

laden 

Lay  (to  place),  in- 

laid 

laid 

Lead,  mis- 

led 

ltd 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Let 

let 

let 

Lie  11  (to  recline) 

lay 

lain 

voter  that  was  drank.'''' — Pres.  Hopkins.  "  The  man  hnth  drank.'''' — 
kjouthey.  "  Such  a  discourse  could  have  emanated  only  from  a  mind 
which  had  drank  deeplv  from  the  fountains  of  experience,  observation,  and 
reflection." — Horace  Mann. 

"  It  is  a  sultrjr  day ;  the  sun  ha?  drauTc 
The  dew  that  lay  upon  the  morning  grass." — Bryant. 
*  Obsolete.  t  Obsolescent. 

\  Hang,  to  take  away  life  by  hanging,  is  regular;  as,  "Judas  departed, 
and  went  and  hanged  himself." 

4  La-de,  to  dip,  is  regular.  y  Lie,  to  deceive,  is  regular. 


VERBS. 

y- 

Present. 

Past. 

Perf.  Part. 

Light 

lighted,  lit 

lighted,  lit 

Load,  un-,  over- 

loaded 

loaded,  loadea* 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Meet 

met 

met 

Mow 

mowed 

mown,  mowed 

Pay,  re- 

paid 

paid 

Pent  (to  enclose) 

penned,  pent 

pent,  penned 

Put 

put 

put 

Quit 

quit^  quitted 

quitted,  quit 

Read 

read 

read 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Ride 

rode,  rid* 

rode,  ridden,  rii* 

Ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

Rise,  a- 

rose 

risen 

Rive 

rived 

rivea 

Run,  Old' 

ran 

run 

Saw 

sawed 

sawn,  sawed 

Say,  un-,  gain 

said 

said 

See,  fore- 

saw 

seen 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Seethe 

seethed,  sod 

seethed,  sodden 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Set,  be- 

set 

set 

Sit  (to  rest) 

sat 

sat 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Shape,  mis- 

shaped 

sliaped,  shapen 

Shave 

shaved 

shaved,  shaven 

Shear 

sheared 

shorn,  sheared 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone,  shined 

shone,  shined 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot,  over- 

shot 

shot 

Show  or  shew 

showed  or  shewed 

shown  or  shewn 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shrink 

shrunk,  shrank 

shrunk 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang,  sung 

sung 

Sink 

sunk,  sank 

sunk 

Shty 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

sli(. 

slidden,  slid 

Sling 

slung,  slang* 

slung 

SUnk 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit,  slitted 

slit,  slitted 

Smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

Sow  J  (to  scatter) 

sowed 

sown,  sowed 

*  Obsolete.        t  Pf", 

to  write,  is  resjular. 
5 

X  Sei'-,  to  stitch,  is  re^ar. 

.^8 


ETVMOLOU  f. 


Present.  Past. 

Si^eak,  bi'  spoke,  spake* 

Spoed  sped 

Spell,  mis-  spelled,  sjiel't 

SpenJ,  mis-  spent 

Spill  spilt,  spilled 

Spin  spun,  span* 

SpitJ  spit,  spat* 

Split  split 

Spread,  over-,  be-  spread 

Spring  sprang,  sprung 

Stand,  with;  wider-  stood 

Steal  stole 

Stick  stuck 

Sting  stung 

Su'idc,  be-  strode,  strid 

Strike  struck 

String  strung 

Strive  strove 

Strow  or  Strew,  bi  strowcd  or  strewed 


Swear,  for- 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell 
Swim 

Swing     [re-,  over- 
Take,  mis-,  under-.^be-, 
Teach,  itn,-  mis- 
Tear 

Tell.  /ore- 
Think,  be- 
Thrive 
Throw,  over- 
Thrust 
Tread,  re- 
Wax 
Wear 
Weave,  un- 
Weep 
Wet 
Whet 
Win 

Wind,  un- 
Work 
Wring 
Write 


swore,  sware* 

sweat,  sweated 

swept 

swelled 

swam,  swura 

swung 

took 

taught 

tore,  tare* 

told 

thought 

throve,  tlirived 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

wet,  wetted 

whetted,  whet 

won 

wound 

worked,  wi-ought 

wrung,  wringed 

wrote,  writ* 


Hem.  2.  —  When  the  past  tense  is  a  monos}- 
gle  vowel,  the  second  person  singular  of  the 


Per/.  Part. 

spoken,  spoke 

sped 

spelled,  spelt 

spent 

spilt,  spilled 

spun 

spit,  spitten.* 

split 

spread 

sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

atung 

stridden,  strid 

struck,  stricken* 

strung 

striven 
(  strown,  stvowed 
I  strewn,  strewed 

sworn 

sweat,  sweated 

swept 

swollen,  swelle»S 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn  • 

told 

thouglit 

thriven,  thrived 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden,  trod 

waxed,  waxen 

worn 

woven,  wove 

wept 

wet,  wetted 

whetted,  whet 

won 

wound 

worked,  wrought 

wrung,  wringed  ' 

WTitten,  writ 

liable  not  ending  in  a  sin 
solemn  style  is  generally 


*  Obsolete. 


J  Spif,  to  put  on  a  spit,  is  r  B{:iilar. 


VERISS.        .  99 

formed  by  the  addition  of  est ;  as,  heardest,  fleddest,  iookest.  Hadst,  wast, 
saidst,  and  didst,  ai-e  exceptions;  and  instances  frequently occar  in  which 
good  writers  prefer  the  shorter  form  of  other  words;  a^^Jiedst  for  Jieddesi, 
heardsi  for  heardest. 

Rem.  3. — Compound  verbs  (except  ivelcome  and  behave,  which  ara 
regular),  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verbs  from  wliich  they  are  formed  j 
as,  see,  saw,  seen;  foresee,  foresaw,  foreseen. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

§  126.  A  defective  verb  is  one  that  cannot  be  used  in 
all  tne  modes  and  tenses.  Thus,  we  cannot  say,  "  I  had 
could,''^  "  I  shall  ean,''^  etc. 

The  defective  verbs  are  can,  could,  may,  migJil,  sliall,  should,  will, 
would,  must,  ought,  quoth,  and  beware. 

UNIPERSONAL  VERBS. 

§  127.  A  unipersonal*  verb  is  one  that  is  used  only  in 
the  third  person  singular ;  as,  It   hails ;  It   snoivs ;  It 

hehoves. 

"Rem.  —  Methinls  is  an  anomalous  word,  compounded  of  me  and  thiyiks. 
It  is  generally  ranked  with  unipersonal  verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

^  128.  Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  irregular  verbs ;  —  of 
defective  verbs;  —  of  unipersonal  verbs. 

How  are  compoumi  verbs  conjugated  ?  What  is  a  defective  verb '' 
Enumerate  the  defective  vtrbs.    What  is  a  unipersonal  verb  ?     Examples. 

*  The  term  impersojial  is  commonly  applied  to  this  class  of  verbs ;  but 
a  word  which  is  always  employed  in  one  of  the  tJu-ee  grammatical  persons, 
cannot,  witli  any  degree  of  propriety,  be  said  to  be  witliont  person. 

"As  to  the  verbs  which  some  grammarians  have  called  iwpersonal,  there 
Bre,  in  fact,  no  such  things  in  the  English  language."  —  CuhhM. 

'•  This  form  is  commonly  called  impersonal;  but  this  denomination  is  in- 
coiTect  and  inadmissible,  since  these  verbs  are  really  in  the  third  person." 
—  De  Sacy. 

Hiley  denominates  these  verbs  inonoversonal ;  and  De  Sacy,  Sutcliffo, 
and  Morgan,  call  tliem  verbs  of  the  tfdrd  person.  The  term  unipersonal  is 
adopted  in  the  Ensjlish  granunars  of  Crane,  Clark,  Piuneo,  and  Fowlc, 
in  Bachi's  Italian  Grammar,  and  in  the  French  gnunmars  of  Bolmar  and 
Bu'^ard. 


100  ETYMOLOGY. 


THE    ADVERB. 

§  129,  An  Adverb*  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  sense 
af  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb ;  as,  "  He  is 
not  understood;"  —  "He  speaks  very  fluently;"  —  "A 
remarkably  diligent  boy." 

Rem.  I. — Adverbs  generally  express  in  one  word  what  would  other- 
wise require  two  or  more.  Thus,  now  is  used  I'or  at  this  time;  there,  for 
in  that  place. 

Rem.  2.  —  A  any  adverbs  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
words.  Thus,  indeed  is  composed  of  in  and  deed;  sometimes,  oi some  and 
times  ;  herein,  of  here  and  in. 

§  130.  Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  several  classes,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  most  important :  — 

1.  Adverbs  of  Manner ;  as,  justly,  rapidly. 

2.  Of  Place  ;  as,  here^  there. 

3.  Of  Time ;  as,  now,  soon,  lately. 

4.  Of  Degree  ;  as,  more,  less,  hardly. 

5.  Of  Affirmation  ;  as,  yes,  certainly,  doubtless. 

6.  Of  Negation  ;  as,  not,  no. 

Rem.  1. —  Other  classes  might  be  enumerated,  but  they  arc  less  dis- 
tinctly marked ;  and  the  ditfercnt  uses  of  adverbs  are  so  numerous  that  a 
perfect  classification  is  impracticable. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  words  to-day,  to-night,  to-morroio,  and  yesterday,  though 
sometimes  classed  with  adverbs,  are  properly  nouns. 

CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS. 

§  131.  A  conjunctive  adverb  is  one  that  performs  the  office  of  a 
modifier  and  also  of  a  connective ;  as,  "  Wheti  Crusoe  saw  the  sav- 
ages, he  became  greatly  alarmed." 

COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 
§  132.    Many   adverbs,   like   adjectives,   admit    of  comparison. 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  Examples.  Name  the  principal  classes  of  adverbs, 
ind  give  examples  of  each.     What  is^a  conjunctive  adverb  ?    Examples. 


*  The  term  adverb  is  derived  from  the  two  Latin  words,  ad  and  ve.thiirt, 

which  signify  ti  a  verb. 


PREPOSITIONS.  101 

Most  of  those   ending  in  bj  are  compared  by  more  and  most ;  as, 
wuieli/,  more  wisely,  ?nosl  wisely. 

A  few  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  enl ;  as,  soon,  sooner 
ioonest. 

The  following  are  compared  irregularly :  — 

■p        ( farther,  farthest  Little,  less,  least 

^'''   I  further,  furthest  IMueh,  more,  most 

"Well,  better,  best  111  or  badly,  worse,  worst 

EXERCISES. 

§  133.  "  The  tree  gi'ows  very  rapidly."  —  "  Iron  is  much 
harder  than  copper."  —  "  Fortune  sometimes  favors  those 
whom  she  afterwards  destroys."  —  "  Diligence  is  seldom  un- 
rewarded." — "  Truth  never  fears  examination,  however 
rigid  it  may  be."  —  "Whatever. is  done  willingly  is   done 

well." 

Point  out  the  ndverbs  in  the  foregoing  sentences.    Give  the  dasr  of  each. 

Name  three  adverbs  ending  in  ly ;  —  three  that  do  not  end  in  ly. 

Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  adverbs  which  modify  Y*«rb9, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Write  sentences  containing  adverbs  of  manner,  place,  time,  degree,  affirma 
tion,  and  negation. 


THE    PREPOSITION. 

§  134.  A  Preposition*  is  a  word  used  to  express  the 
relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  depending  upon  it,  to  some 
other  word  in  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  lie  went  from  Boston 
to  Albany ;  "  —  "  Washington  was  the  father  of  liia 
country." 

How  are  adverbs  ending  in  ly  generally  comjxired  ?  Examples.  Give  ex- 
amples of  adverbs  compared  by  er  and  est;  —  of  adverbs  compared  irregularly. 
What  is  a  preposition  ?     Examples. 

*  The  tenn  preposiv'on  is  dcrivei'  ftx)m  the  Latin  vrord  propositus,  which 
signifies  placed  before. 


102 


ETYMOLOGY, 


Rkm.  —  In  the  foregoins^  examples, /?077i  expresses  the  relation  Iie- 
lw';cn  iveiU  and  Bosto/i ;  to,  the  relation  between  went  and  AlUinij ,-  and, 
of,  the  relation  hctvrccn  fal/ia'  and  countnj. 

§135.  The  following  list  of  prepositions  embraces  most  of  those  in 
common  use :  — 


About 

at 

by 

on 

under 

ibove 

atliwart 

concerning 

over 

niulernealh 

across 

l)efore 

down 

respecting 

nnril 

after 

behind 

during 

round 

UillO 

against 

below 

except 

since 

U]) 

along 

beneath 

excepting 

through 

upon 

amid  at 

beside  or 

for 

throughout 

with 

amidst 

besides 

from 

till 

within 

among  or 

between 

in 

to 

witlio'it 

amongst 

betwixt 

into 

towards 

worth* 

around 

beyond 

of 

THE    CONJUNCTION. 

9  136.  A  Conjunetion^  is  a  word  that  is  used  to  con- 
nect -words  or  sentences ;  as,  "  Seven  a7id  five  are 
twelve;"  —  "Straws  swim  on  the  surface;  but  pearls 
lie  at  the  bottom." 

Rem.  —  The  words  belonging  to  this  part  of  speech  do  not  admit  of  a 
satisfactory  division  into  classes. J 

What  is  a  conjunction  1    Examples. 

*  "  Worth  has  the  construction  of  a  preposition,  as  it  admits  of  t!ie  objec- 
tive case  after  it,  without  an  intervening  preposition." — Worcester's  Dirt. 

"  The  word  wortk  is  often  followed  by  an  objective,  or  a  participle  which 
it  appears  to  govern  ;  as,  '  If  your  argitments  produce  no  conviction,  they 
are  worth  nothing  to  me.' — ^  This  is  life  indeed,  life  u-orth  preserving!' 
It  is  not  easy  to  determine  to  what  part  of  speech  icorth  here  belongs.  Dr. 
Johnson  calls  it  an  adjective,  but  says  nothing  of  the  oi/ec/tve  after  it,  which 
some  suppose  to  be  governed  by  of  understood.  In  this  supposition,  it  is 
gratuitously  assnra  ed,  that  tcor'th  is  equivalent  to  worthy,  alter  which  of 
should  be  expressed ;  as,  '  WTiatsoever  is  worthy  o/their  love,  is  ivorth  their 
anger.'  But,  as  worth  appears  to  have  no  certain  characteristic  of  an  adjec- 
tive, some  call  it  a  iwun,  and  suppose  a  double  ellipsis  ;  as,  '  The  book  is 
[of  the]  worth  [of]  a  dollar.'  This  is  still  less  satisfactory;  and,  as  the 
whole  appears  to  be  mere  guess-work,  we  see  no  good  reason  why  worth  is 
not  a  preposition,  governing  the  noun  or  participle." — G.  Brown'. 

Worth  is  also  classed  with  prepositions  by  Davis,  Everest,  Jenkins,  Todd, 
Badgley,  and  others. 

^  t  The  term  conjunction  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  conjungo,  which 
isfuifies  to  join  togetlier. 

t  "  The  old  distinction  of  conjunctions  into  copulative  and  disjunctivey 


INTERJECTIONS.  103 


ij  137.  The  following  is 

a  list  of  the  words 

most  fre(iu 

ently  empioj' 

IS  conjunctions 

:  — 

And 

but 

neither  - 

thap. 

though 

aUliough 

eiiliex" 

nor 

that 

unless 

as 

for 

notwithstandii^g 

then 

wherefore 

because 

if 

or 

therefore 

yet 

both 

lest 

since 

THE    INTERJECTION. 

§  138.  An  Interjection*  is  an  exclamatory  word,  uaed 
merely  to  express  some  pa&sion  or  emotion. 

The  following  list  of  interjections  includes  most  of  those  which  are  in 
general  use :  — 

Ah!  alas!  fie!  ha!  hallo!  indeed!  lo !  0!  ch!  pshaw!  ho!  welcome  1 

Rem.  —  Other  parts  of  speech  are  frequently  used  to  perforin  the  of- 
fceof  interjections;  as,  hark!  surprising!  mercy! 

EXERCISES. 
§  139.  "Of  what  use  are  riches  without  happiness?"  — 
"  Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye 
even  so  to  them."  —  "  The  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  admonish  us 
of  a  superior  and  superintending  power."  —  "  Righteousness 
ejsalteth  a  nation  ;  but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people."  — 
"  Whence  are  thy  beams,  0  sun !  " 

What  is  an  interjection  ?     Examples. 

was  founded  in  error,  and  is,  happily,  going  into  disuse  in  our  grammars." 
— Frazee. 

"  Conjunctions  are  generally  divided  into  copulative  and  disjunctive ;  ba4 
more  confusion  than  practical  advantage  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  divis- 
ion."—  Goodenoiv. 

"  I  shall  not  take  up  time,  and  confuse  the  understanding  of  the  learner, 
by  dividing  the  words  considered  as  conjunctions,  into  cojndative  disjtmc 
five,  concessive,  etc." — Leivis. 

"  The  common  division  of  the  words  termed  conjunctions,  into  copulative, 
as  and ;  disjunctive,  as  either,  or,  neither,  nor,  etc. ;  concessive,  as  though, 
although,  yet ;  adversative,  as  hut,  however ;  causal,  as  for,  because,  since; 
ii/ativ'!.  as  therefore,  wherefore,  then ;  conditional,  as  if;  exceptive,  as  wn 
less ;  deserves  little  consideration" — Grant. 

*  The  term  interjection  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  intery edits,  which 
BlKiiiSes  thrown,  bttwccn. 


104  ETYMOLOGY.  « 

Point  out  the  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  iuterjeclious,  in  the  fore 
going  sentences. 

Write  sentences  containing  examples  of  preposition:),  conjunctions,  and 
interjections. 


DERIVATION.* 

§  140.  Derivation  is   that   part   of  Etymology  which 

treats  of  the  origin  and  primary  signification  of  words. 

Rem.  —  Tlie  ■words  of  every  cultivated  language  may  be  re- 
duced to  groups  or  families,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  ■words 
related  to  each  other  by  identity  of  origiii  and  similarity  of  signifi- 
cation. Thus,  the  vrords  Justice,  justify,  justification,  justly,  adjust, 
readjust,  unjust,  injustice,  etc.,  are  all  kindred  ■words,  connected 
■with  the  common  parent  just.  So  also,  the  words  terrace,  terra- 
queous, terrene,  terrestrial,  terrier,  territory,  inter,  interment,  disin- 
ter, Mediterranean,  subterranean,  etc.,  are  all  connected  with  their 
parent  terra,  the  earth. 

§  141.  Words  are  di\aded  into  two  general  classes :  — 
primitive  and  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  derived  from  any 
other  word  or  words  in  the  language ;  as,  man^  obey. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  soma 
primitive  word  or  words ;  as,  manly,  disobey. 

ORIGIN  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 
§  142.  The  basis  of  the  English  language  is  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  which  was  introduced  into  England  from  Germany 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 

Rem. —  This  original  stock,  besides  being  greatly  motlified  by 
use,  has  received  large  additions  from  other  languages.     The  inva 

What  is  derivation  ?  To  what  may  the  icords  of  every  atltivated  lanffiiagt 
le  redttced?  Examples.  Into  ■what  two  general  clfisses  are  words  divi;led  1 
What  is  a  primitive  word  ■?  Examples.  A  derivative  word  ■?  Examples 
What  is  the  basis  of  our  language  1 


*  For  a  full  and  weil-diijested  system  of  Derivation,  the  learner  is  re- 
ferred to  McElligott's  "  Analytical  Manual." 


*       PREFIXES    AXC    SUFiXXES.  10£ 

siOD  of  the  Danes  and  Normans  introduced  many  Danish  and 
Noiman-French  -words ;  and  a  great  number  of  Latin  and  Greek 
words  have  been  since  incorporated.  We  are  also  indebted  for 
some  of  our  words  to  the  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Gei'man,  and 
other  languages. 

PREFIXES   AND    SUFFIXES. 

§  143.  Most  of  the  derivative  words  of  our  language, 
are  formed  by  the  aid  of  prefixes  and  suffixes. 

A  prefij:  is  a  letter,  syllable,  or  word,  joined  to  the 
beginning  of  a  word ;  as,  aloft,  rebuild,  overcome. 

A  suffix  is  a  letter  or  syllable,  joined  to  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as,  stormy,  proudZ_?/,  lawless. 

Rem.  1.  —  Most  of  the  suffixes  do  not  admit  of  precise  and  accurate 
definitions.    - 

Eem.  2.  —  Two  or  more  prefixes  or  suffixes  are  sometimes  employed 
in  the  same  word ;  as,  rediscoycr,  power/!(-/(y.  Rediscover  contains  two 
prefixes,  re  and  dis ;  and  powerfuUy,  two  suffixes, /i/i  and  7^. 

Rem.  3.  —  Many  of  the  roots  or  essential  p.arts  of  the  words  before 
which  prefixes  are  placed,  are  not  used  as  distinct  words  in  our  language. 

Rem.  4.  —  When  a  prefix  ends  in  a  sound  that  will  not  readily 

unite  with  the  sound  of  the  word  before  which  it  is  placed,  the  final 

letter  of  the  prefix  is  oflened  changed  or  omitted ;  as,  ignoble,  for 

innohle  ;  coexist^  for  conexist. 

English  or  Saxon  Prefixes. 

§  144.  The  following  are  the  prefixes  of  English  or  Saxon  origin, 
with  their  significations  :  — 

1.  A  signifies  on,  in,  or  at ;  as,  oshore,  on  ihore  ;  asleep,  in  sleep, 

2.  Be  signifies  upon,  over,  about,  etc. ;  as,  icspeidi,  bedew,  be^ 
sprinkle. 

3.  For  signifies  from  or  against ;  as,  forbear,  forbid. 

4.  Fore  signifies  before;  as,  foresee,  ybretell. 

W7iai  changes  has  our  htu/uage  undergone  since  the  period  of  the  Anglo 
Saxons  ?  How  are  most  English  derivatives  formed  1  What  is  a  prefix  ! 
Examples.  Wha;  is  a  suffix?  Examples.  What  is  sometimes  done  rvi^ 
thtjinal  letter  of  a  prefix  f 

5* 


106  ETYMOLOGT.  ^ 

5.  Mis  signifies  wrong,  erroneous,  or  defective;  as,  7«isconduct, 
7<iiiriLle. 

6.  Out  signifies  beyond,  more,  or  exterior;  as,  outrun,  outlive, 
OM^side. 

7.  Ocer  implies  excess  or  superiority  ;  as,  overAo,  overcome. 

8.  Un  denotes  negation  or  privation  ;  as,  w?icertain,  unbind. 

9.  Under  generally  signifies  beneath,  inferior,  or  subordinate  ;  as, 
underlay,  undeiinme. 

10.  Up  denotes  elevation  or  subversion;  as,  wjaland,  «/jset 

11.  With  generally  denotes  opposition  or  separation ;  as,  withr 
stand,  wiVAdraw. 

Latin  Prefixes. 

§  145.  The  following  are  the  principal  prefixes  derived  from  the 
Latin,  with  their  significations :  — 

1.  A,  ab,  or  abs,  signifies /rom  ;  as,  avert,  to  turn  from ;  absolve, 
(.0  release  from ;  abstract,  to  draw  from. 

2.  Ad  signifies  to  or  at;  as,  adjoin,  to  join  to.  In  composition 
this  prefix  may  become  a,  ac,  af  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  or  at ;  as, 
ascend,  accede,  a/fix,  aggrandize,  a/lot,  annex,  appeal,  arrest, 
assume,  attract 

3.  Ante  signifies  before ;  as,  antecedent,  going  before ;  antedilu- 
vian, before  the  Flood. 

4.  Circum  signifies  round  or  about;  as,  eircurnna^'igate,  to  sail 
round. 

5.  Con  signifies  with  or  together ;  as,  convoke,  to  call  together. 
This  prefix  takes  also  the  forms  co,  cog,  col,  com,  and  cor;  as,  co- 
here, co^rnate,  coHect,  compress,  correlative. 

6.  Contra  signifies  against  ;  as,  contradict,  to  speak  against  This 
prefix  is  sometimes  changed  to  counter;  as,  counteract. 

7.  i)e  generally  signifies /roffi  or  £?otwi;  as,  c/educe,  to  draw  from ; 
debase,  to  bring  down. 

8.  Dis  generally  implies  .reparation  or  disunion ;  as,  dissolve.  It 
has  sometimes  a  negative  use ;  as,  </wapprove.  IHs  takes  also  the 
forms  di  and  dif;  as,  rftverge,  dif  fase. 

9.  E  or  ex  signifies  out.  out  of,  or  from ;  as,  g'ect,  to  cast  out ; 
evade,  to  escape  from.  This  prefix  takes  also  the  forms  ec  and  ef; 
as,  eccentric,  efface. 

10.  Extra  signifies  beyond,  or  more  than;  as,  extraordinary. 


GREEK    PREFIXES.  107 

11.  //),  before  an  adjective,  lias  a  negative  signification,  nearly 
equivalent  to  not ;  ais,  inactive,  not  active ;  msecure,  not  secure. 
Before  a  verb,  in  signifies  in,  into,  or  against ;  as,  insert,  to  place  in  ; 
tVidict,  to  speak  against.  This  prefix  takes  also  the  forms  en,  im,  ig, 
U,  ir,  and  e?n;  as,  e/igrave,  twplacablc,  ignoble,  iflegal,  in-adiate, 
ewtboss. 

12.  Inter  signifies  iettceen  or  among ;  as,  in^e/Tene,  to  come  be- 
tM  ecn ;  zWersperse,  to  scatter  among. 

13.  (56  generally  signifies  against;  as,  obstruct,  to  build  against 
Ob  takes  .also  the  forms  oc,  of,  and  op  ;  as,  occur,  offend,  oppose. 

14.  Per  generally  signifies  through  or  by ;  as,  j3ervade,  to  pa^ 
through  ;  jjerchance,  by  chance. 

1 5.  Pre  or  p7'a2  signifies  before  ;  as,  j^recede,  to  go  before. 

16.  Pro  signifies  for,  forth,  or  forward  ;  as, /pronoun,  for  a  noun  , 
provoke,  to  call  forth ;  promote,  to  move  forward. 

17.  7?e  .signifies  again  or  back;  as,  reenter,  to  enter  again;  re- 
call, to  call  back. 

18.  .Se  denotes  departure  or  separation;  a3,  secede,  to  withd-aw 
from. 

19.  Sub  signifies  under;  as,  sw&scribe,  to  write  under.  Subhsa 
also  the  forms  sue,  suf  sug,  sup,  and  sus  ;  as,  succeed,  suyfuse,  sug- 
gest, siip\)OTt,  .ftwpend. 

20.  Super  generally  signifies  beyond,  above,  or  oi'er ;  as,  super- 
n;itural,  beyond  nature ;  supervise,  to  oversee.  This  prefix  oflen 
becomes  sur  ;  as,  .surcharge. 

21.  Trans  signifies  over  or  beyond ;  as,  transfer,  to  carryover; 
frawsathintic,  beyond  the  Atlantic. 

Greek  Prefixes. 

§  14G.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  prjfixes  derived 
from  the  Greek,  -Rnth  their  significations  :  — 

1.  A  or  an  denotes  privation,  and  is  generally  equivalent  to  tcith- 
out;  as,  atheist,  -without  a  God;  anarchy,  without  government. 

2.  Anti  signifies  against ;  as,  an/ichristian,  against  Christianity. 

3.  Mono  signifies  single  ;  as,  monosyllable,  one  syllable. 

4.  Po/y  signifies  Tna?!?/ ;  as,  polysyllable,  a  word  of  many  syllables. 

5.  Syn  signifies  ivith  or  together;  as,  .fj^nthesis,  putting  together. 
Syn  takes  also  the  forms  sy,  syl,  and  sym;  as,  system,  syflogism, 
tynjpathy. 


PART     III. 


SYNTAX. 

<§.  147.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences 
according  to  the  established  laws  of  speech. 

^  148.  A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making 
complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds  ; — simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  contains  only  one 

finite  verb;  as,  " The  sun  rises  in  the  east." 

Rem. — The  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  may  itself  be  compound ;  aa, 
"i^ve  and  three  are  eight." 

A  compound  setitence  is  one  that  contains  two  or  more 
simple  sentences;  as,  "Industry  procures  competence,  and 
frugality  preserves  it;" — "He  fills,  he  bounds,  connects, 
and  equals  all." 

§  149.  The  simple  sentences  which  unite  to  form  a  com- 
pound sentence,  are  called  members  or  clauses. 

§  150.  The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are  the 
subject  or  nominative,  the  verb,  and  the  object.  Thus,  in 
the  sentence,  "Temperance  promotes  health,"  temperance 
is  the  subject,  promotes  the  verb,  and  health  the  object. 

Of  what  docs  syntax  treat?  What  is  a  sentence?  Into  what  two 
general  classes  are  sentences  divided  ?  What  is  a  simple  sentence  ?  Ex- 
amples. A  compound  sentence?  Examples.  What  are  the  sunpl© 
sentences  embraced  in  a  compound  sentence  called?  What  are  the  prin* 
cipaJ  pai-ta  of  a  simple  sentence  ?    Illustrate. 


EXERCISES.  109 

Rem. — A  sentence  in  which  the  verb  i3  intransitive,  has  only  two 
principal  parts,  the  subject  and  the  verb ;  as,  "  He  runs." 

§  151.  A  Phrase  is  a  combination  of  words  forming  a  part  of  a 
sentence,  but  not  containing  a  finite  verb;  as,  "At  length;" — 
"  Hand  in  hand ;" — "  The  hour  having  arrived  j" — "  To  confess  the 
truth." 

§  152.  "Words  used  to  explain  or  modify  other  words,  are  called 
aJJuncts.  This  term  embraces  all  the  words  of  a  simple  sentence, 
except  the  principal  parts.  Many  adjuncts  are  composed  of  two  or 
more  words ;  as,  "  Prhiting  was  invented  in  the  fifteenth  century." 
The  whole  phrase,  "  in  the  fifteenth  century,"  is  here  an  adjunct  of 
was  invented.     The  and  fifteenth  are  also  adjuncts  of  century. 

§  153.  An  Idiom  is  a  form  of  expression  pecuhar  to  a  language ; 
as,  "  Bear  with  me  /' — "  They  came  forward,  to  a  man." 

Rem. — The  idioms  of  a  language  are  not  governed  by  the  ordinary 
rules  of  syntax.  A  knowledge  of  them  is  therefore  best  acquired  by  ob- 
serving carefully  the  phraseology  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers. 

'§.154.  Agreement  is  the  correspondence  of  one  word 
with  another,  in  gender,  number,  person,  case,  or  form. 

<§>  155.  Government  is  the  power  which  one  word  has 
over  another,  in  determining  its  state. 

EXERCISES. 

^  156.  "  Philosophers  have  often  mistaken  the  true 
source  of  happiness." — "Pride  goeth  before  destruction 
and  a  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall." — "  Children  are  sup- 
ported by  their  parents." — "  Phocion  was  always  poor, 
though  he  might  have  been  very  rich." — "Dryden  knew 
more  of  man  in  his  general  nature ;  Pope  in  his  local  man- 
ners."— "  He  will  go  by  and  by." — "In  a  word,  the  time 
for  action  has  come." 

Wliai  ere  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  in  which  the  verb  is  intransi- 
live  f     Examples.     What  is  a  phrase  ?    Examples.     What  is  an  adjunct  f 
Exwnples.    What  is  an  idiom  f    Examples.    "WTiat  is  agreement?    What 
8  government  ? 


110  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS 

Winch  of  the  foj  egoing  sentences  ai'e  simple  ?  "WTiieh  compound  f 
Point  out  the  principal  parts  of  each  simple  sentence.  Which  of  the 
simple  sentences  have  three  principal  parts?  Which  have  only  two?  Point 
out  one  or  more  phrases.  Point  out  the  adjuncts  in  each  simple  sentence. 
What  idioms  occur  ? 

Write  a  simple  sentence ; — a  compound  sentence ; — a  simple  sentence 
having  three  principal  parts ; — one  having  only  two.  Write  a  seixtence 
having  a  phrase  connected  with  it ; — one  containing  an  idiom. 

ANALYSIS.* 

^  157.  The  analysis  of  a  sentence  consists  in  resolving 
it  into  its  constituent  parts,  and  pointing  out  their  several 
relations,  connections,  and  dependences. 

Every  simple  sentence  consists  essentially  of  two  parts ; 
— a  subject  and  a  predicate.  The  subject  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed ;  and  the  jnedicatc  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject. 

§  158.  The  subject  and  predicate  may  be  distinguished 
as  either  grammatical  or  logical. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  a  noun,   or  some  word, 

phrase,  or  sentence,  used  as  a  noun. 

Examples: — "No  man  was  ever  great  by  imitation." — Johnson.  "  To 
tell  our  own  secrets,  is  generally  folly." — Ihid.  "  Who  can  understand 
his  errors." — Ps.  19 :  12.  "  That  you  have  wronged  me,  doth  appear 
in  this." — Shah. 

The  logical  subject  includes  all  the  words  that  are  em- 
ployed to  express  the  whole  idea  of  the  subject. 

Ejoampiles: — "Xo  man  was  ever  great  by  imitation." — "  To  tell  our  own 
secrets,  is  generally  folly." — "  The  desire  of  being  pleased,  is  universal." 

In  what  does  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  consist  ?  Of  what  does  every 
simple  sentence  consist?  Define  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  "What  is 
the  grammatical  subject?  Examples.  Wlat  is  the  logical  subject? 
Examples. 

*  Andrews  and  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar,  Kiihner's  Latin  and  Greek 
Grammars,  Crosby's  Greek  Grammar,  De  Sacy's  General  Grammar,  Crane's 
Eutrlish  Grammar,  and  Mulligan's  Grammatical  Structure  o^'  the  English 
Language. 


ANALYSIS.  Ill 

The  grammatical  jiredicate  is  a  finite  verb.* 

Ejcami^les : — "  iSTo  genius  was  ever  Masted  by  the  breath  of  critics." — 
Johnson.  "  Malice  often  hears  dowii  truth." — Ibid.  "  We  dwdl  \sath 
pious  fondness  on  the  characters  and  virtues  of  the  departed." — Story. 

The  logical  predicate  includes  all  the  words  that  are 

e  mployed  to  express  the  whole  idea  of  the  predicate. 

Examples: — "No  genius  was  ever  blasted  by  the  breath  of  critics." — 
"Malice  often  hears  down  truth." — "The  discriminating  power  of 
conscience  is  improved  by  reflecting  upon  the  moral  character  of  <mr 
actions." — Wayland. 

Eem.  1. — The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  often  the  same  aa 
the  logical.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "Time  flies,"  the  whole  idea  of  the 
subject  Ls  expressed  by  the  noun  Time,  and  the  whole  idea  of  the  predi- 
cate, by  the  verb  flies.  Time  is  therefore  both  the  grammatical  and  the 
logical  subject,  and  flies  both  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  predicate. 

Kem,  2. — When  the  grammatical  subject  or  predicate  is  modified 

by  other  words,  it  is  said  to  be  complex.^    The  complex  subject  or 

What  is  the  grammatical  predicate  ?  Examples.  The  logical  predi- 
cate ?     Examples. 

*  Some  grammarians  still  adhere  to  the  principle,  that  the  grammatical 
predicate  may  consist  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  in  connection  with  the  verb 
to  be.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Snow  is  white,"  it  is  said  that  is  does  not 
express  what  is  asserted  of  snmv,  and  therefore  the  grammatical  predicate 
is  not  properly 'is,  but  is  white.  In  the  sentence,  "He  has  friends,"  we 
might,  with  equal  propriety,  say  that  the  word  has  does  not  express  what 
is  asserted  of  he,  and  therefore  the  grammatical  predicate  is  not  properly 
Jias,  but  has  friends.  This  mode  of  reasoning  proves  too  much.  It  would 
destroy  all  distinction  between  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  predicate. 

Since  the  above  note  was  written,  similar  views  have  been  expressed  in 
an  able  and  elaborate  treatise  on  the  Structure  of  the  English  Language,  by 
J .  Mulligan.  The  following  is  an  extract  from  his  remarks  on  this  subject: 
~"  Another  difficulty  which  presented  itself,  was  to  ascertain  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  grammatiCcU  functions  performed  by  is,  for  example,  in 
the  proposition,  '  The  man  is  old,''  and  the  function  performed  by  becomes 
in  the  proposition,  '  The  man  becomes  old,''  or  by  grows  in  the  proposition. 
'  The  man  grows  old,''  or  by  seems  in  the  proposition,  '  The  man  seems  old} 
The  ditfereuce  of  meaning  of  all  these  verbs  is  abundantly  clear,  but  we 
could  not  discover  or  assign  any  gi-ammatical  distinction.  Till  this  was 
done,  wo  felt  bound,  if  we  called  is  the  copula,  to  call  becomes,  grows,  seems, 
etc.,  copulas.  In  this  case,  copulas  would  be  numerous  enough,  since  every 
vert  which  can  take  an  adjective  after  it  as  a  modiiication  might  claim  this 
name.  This  was  the  difficulty  which  actually  arrested  our  progress,  and 
the  attempt  to  solve  it  has  led  to  the  conclusion,  that  between  is  and  the 
other  verbs  mentioned  above,  there  is  no  grammatical,  no fun-ctional  differ- 
ence whatever  ;  that  both  it  and  they  alike  express  a  predicate,  whilst,  in 
common  with  all  verbs,  they  indicate  predication,  that  is,  serve  as  copula  ; 
consequently,  that  there  is  no  word  in  our  language  which  expresses  a 
mere  naked  conula."  t  De  Sacy. 


112  8YKTAX. ANALYSIS. 

pi-edicate  is  also  called  the  tnodified  subject  or  predicate.  The  logical 
subject  may  be  either  a  complex  subject  or  a  grammatical  subject 
unmodified ;  and  the  logical  predicate  may  be  either  a  complex  pre- 
dicate or  an  unmodified  grammatical  predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

Model. 

<§>  159.  "  His  agreeable  manners  have  made  him  a  uni- 
versal favorite." — "We  often  remember  things  vrithout 
an  J  voluntary  effort." 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  the  grammatical  subject  is  manners ;  the 
logical  subject,  his  agreeable  manners.  The  grammatical  predicate  is 
fiave  made ;  the  logical  predicate,  have  made  him  a  universal  favorite. 

Jn  the  second  sentence,  we  is  both  the  grammatical  and  the  logical 
Bubject.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  remeiriber ;  the  logical  predicate, 
often  reraember  things  without  any  voluntary  effort. 

"  The  island  of  Borneo  is  traversed  bj  the  equator." — 
"  True  hope  is  based  on  energy -of  character." — "  The  day 
dawns." — "  To  seek  to  govern  men  by  their  fears  and 
their  wants,  is  an  unworthy  purpose." — "  Anger  is  a  short 
madness." — "The  vice  of  covetousness  enters  deepest  into 
the  soul." — "  Kature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations." — 
"  The  meaning  of  many  English  words  has  changed  dur- 
ing the  last  century." — "  Extreme  selfishness  is  often  the 
cause  of  its  own  disappointment." — "The  love  of  life  is 
deeply  implanted  in  the  human  heart." — "Solon  gave 
laws  to  the  Athenians." — "  Valuable  knowledge  always 
leads  to  some  practical  results." — "Heaven  from  all 
creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate." 

Point  out  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  suDject  in  each  of  the  fore- 
going sentences; — the  grammatical  and  the  logical 'predicate. 

Explain  the  use  of  the '  terms  complex  and  modified,  as  applied  in  tfi« 
subject  or  predicate. 


SUBJECTS  AND  PREDICATES.  113 

Simple  and  Compound  Subjects  and  Predicates. 

§  160.  The  subject  and  the  predicate  maj  be  either 
simple  or  compound. 

A  sim_ple  subject  is  a  single  noun,  or  a  "woi'd  or  phrase 
used  as  a  noun,  either  standing  bj  itself  or  accompanied 
by  modifying  adjuncts;  as,  "  The  pride  of  wit  has  kept 
ages  busy  in  the  discussion  of  useless  questions." — John- 
son. In  this  sentence,  the  simple  grammatical  subject  is 
pi'ide^  and  the  simple  logical  subject  is  the  pride  of  wit. 

A  compound  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
subjects ;  as,  ''  Wild  beasts  and  savage  Indians  lurked  in 
the  ravines."  The  compound  grammatical  subject,  in  this 
sentence,  consists  of  the  words  beasts  and  Indians.  The 
compound  logical  subject  embraces  the  phrases  loild  beasts 
and  savage  Indians. 

A  simple  predicate  is  a  single  verb,  either  standing 
alone  or  accompanied  by  modifying  adjuncts;  as,  "No 
genius  tvas  ever  blasted  by  the  breath  of  critics.' '  The 
simple  grammatical  predicate,  in  this  senten^  is  tvas 
blasted,  and  the  simple  logical  predicate  is  \oas  ever 
blasted  hy  the  breath  of  critics. 

A  compound  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
predicates;  as,  "Men  overpowered  by  distress,  eagerly 
listen  to  the  Jirst  offers  of  relief  ,  close  with  every  scheme, 
and*believe  every  promise.'' ' — Jolinson.  In  this  sentence, 
the  compound  grammatical  pi'edicate  embraces  the  words 
listen,  close,  and  believe.  The  compound  logical  predicate 
embraces  all  the  words  that  are  expressed  in  Italics. 

"What  is  a  simple  subject  ?  Examples.  L  compound  subject  ?  Ex- 
amples. A  simple  predicate?  Examples.  A  compomiJ  predicate? 
Examples. 


114  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

EXERCISES. 
§  161.  "Anger  and  haste  hinder  good  counsel." — 
"  Pharaoh  and  his  host  were  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea." — 
"  The  Roman  empire  fell  bj  its  own  corruptions." — "  The 
Htj  was  besieged  and  taken." — "The  violence  of  the 
storm  and  the  darkness  of  the  night,  ^revesLted  all  approach 
to  the  ship,  and  rendered  our  situation  trulj  alarming."" — 
"  Few  things  are  impracticable  in  themselves." — "Tem- 
perance and  exercise  are  the  best  means  of  preserving 
health." — "  Friendship  eases  and  unloads  the  mind,  clears 
and  improves  the  understanding,  animates  virtue  and  good 
relations,  and  finds  employment  for  our  most  vacant 
hours." 

Point  out  the  simple  subjects  in  the  foregoing  sentences ; — the  com- 
pound subjects ; — ^the  simple  predicates ; — the  compound  predicates. 

"Write  a  sentence  containing  a  simple  subject ; — one  containing  a  com- 
pound subject ; — a  simple  predicate ; — a  compound  predicate. 

§  162.  The  principal  words  employed  to  modify  the  grammatical 
subject  and  predicate,  may  themselves  be  modified  by  other  words, 
and  these^gain  by  others  still.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  dis- 
criminatidH^ower  of  conscience  is  improved  by  reflecting  upon  the 
moral  character  of  our  actions,"  hy  reflecting  is  an  adjunct  of  is  im- 
proved; v^on  character  is  an  adjunct  of  reflecting  ;  character  is  mod- 
ified by  the  moral,  and  of  actions;  and  #tor  modifies  actions. 

§  163.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  and  predicate  are  distinguished 
as  either  grammatical  or  logical. 

Those  -words  which  refer  directly  to  the  grammatical  subject,  are 
called  grammatical  adjuncts  of  the  subject.  The  grammatical  ad- 
juncts and  their  various  modifiers  form  the  logical  adjuncts  of  the 
subject  In  the  sentence,  "  The  members  of  a  period  connected  by 
proper  copulatives,  gUde  smoothly  and  gently  along,"  the  grammat- 

Hrw  may  the  principal  words  used  to  Tnodify  Hie  grammatical  subject 
ami  predicate  be  themselves  affected?  Illustrate.  Explain  the  application 
of  the  terms  grammatical  and  logical  io  the  adjuncts  of  Uie  subject  and  pre- 
dicate.    Examples. 


EXERCISES.  115 

ical  subject  members  is  modified  directly  by  the^  of  period,  and  con- 
nected. These  words  ai'e,  therefore,  called  the  direct  or  grammatical 
adjuncts  of  the  subject.  The  logical  adjuncts  are  the,  of  a  period, 
and  connected  hy  proper  copulatives. 

Those  words  in  the  predicate  wliich  refer  directly  to  the  verb,  are 
called  gramriatical  adjuncts  of  the  predicate.  The  grammatical  ad- 
juncts and  their  various  modifiers  form  the  logical  adjuncts  of  the  pre- 
dicate* In  the  sentence, "  Endeavor  always  to  have  noble  sentiments," 
tlie  direct  or  grammatical  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  are  always  and 
to  have.     The  logical  adjuncts  are  always  and  to  have  nohle  sentir.ients. 

§  164.  AU  the  different  adjuncts  of  a  sentence  admit  of  gram- 
matical and  logical  distinctions.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  "We  are 
inclined  to  believe  those  who  have  never  deceived  us,"  the  gram- 
matical object  of  to  believe  is  those,  and  the  logical  object  is  tho^Mvho 
have  never  deceived  us.  So  also,  in  the  sentence,  "  Neither  ^^bs 
nor  practice  will  always  supply  a  hasty  writer  with  the  most  proper 
diction,"  the  grammatical  object  of  with  is  diction,  and  the  logical 
object  is  the  most  proper  diction. 

IIe5I. — In  the  analysis  of  senteuces,  the  predicate  sometimes  embraces 
a  word,  which  in  common  parsing  belongs  properly  to  the  subject  or 
nominative.  Thus,  in  analyzing  the  sentence,  "  The  fields  are  green,"  the 
word  green  is  considered  a  part  of  the  predicate ;  but  in  parsing  the  same 
sentence,  the  word  green  is  said  to  belong  to  the  nominative  Jields.  Green 
is  here  a  quality  predicated  of  the  nominative  fields.    See  Rule  8,  Rem.  13. 

EXERCISES.  ■    V 

Model.  '\» 

§  165.  "  Some  of  Miltoi^  most  pathetic  passages  are  due  to  his 
loss  of  sight." 

The  grammatical  subject,  in  this  sentence,  is  some.  The  grammatical 
adjunct  of  some  is  of  passages;  the  logical  adjunct,  of  Milton's  most  pa- 
thetic passages.  The  grammatical  object  of  the  preposition  of  is  passages ; 
tlio  logical  object,  Milton's  most  pathetic  passages.  The  grammaticiil  ad- 
juncts of  passages  are  Milton's  and  pathetic ;  its  logical  adjuncts  are  Mil- 
ton''s  and  most  ptathetic. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  are.     The  grammatical  adjunct  of  are  is 
dxie;  the  logical  adjunct,  due  to  his  loss  of  sight.     The  grammatical  object 
of  to  is  loss;  the  logical  object,  his  loss  of  sight.    His  and  of  sight  are  both 
-grammatical  and  logical  adjuncts  of  toss. 

"  Habits  formed  in  youth,  accompany  us  through  life."  — "  Men 


116  SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. 

in  the  highest  stations  have  the  least  hberty." — "True  greatenss 
consists  in  the  exercise  of  the  benevolent  virtues." — "  The  honors 
due  to  learning,  have  been  justly  distributed  by  posteiity." — ''The 
different  passions  of  the  mind  must  be  expressed  by  different  tones 
of  the  voice." — "  The  principles  of  true  philosopliic  taste  are  uu- 
chano-eable." — "  Lien  tear  themselves  from  their  families  in  search 
of  things  rare  and  new." — "  The  habit  of  using  words  accurately 
begets  the  habit  of  thinking  accurately." 

In  the  foregoing  sentences,  point  out  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  ad- 
juncts of  the  grammatical  subjects ;  of  the  grammatical  predicates.  Point 
out  the  grammatical  and  logical  distinctions  in  all  tlie  different  adjuncts,  as 
in  the  model  above. 

Modifications  of  the  Grammatical  Subject. 

"-  V'"'.  A  grammatical  subject  may  be  modified  in  the  following 
I  :  ways: — 

1.  By  an  apposition  noun,  either  alone  or  in  connection  with  its 

modifying  adjuncts;  as,  "Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome,  slew  his 

brother." 

Rem. — As  the  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  may  be  used  eitiier 
with  or  without  modifying  adjuncts,  so  also  a  word  emploj-ed  to  modiiy 
the  grammatical  su))ject  or  predicate  may  itself  be  used  either  with  or 
without  modification  by  other  words.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Romulus, 
the  founder  of  Rome,  slew  his  brother,"  the  v^ovA  founder,  which  is  in  ap- 
position v!]^^^onudus,  is  itself  modified  by  the  adjuncts  the  and  of  Rome. 
But  in  the^entence,  "  Good  men  are  esteemed,"  the  word  good,  whic'i 
modifies  men,  is  jjeelf  unmodified. 


2.  By  a  preposition  and  its  object,  taken  by  themselves  or  with 
modifying  adjuncts;  as,  "One  of  tis  mftt  remain;" — "The  report 
of  this  unfortunate  occurrence  soon  reachu'd  our  ears." 

Obs. — In  the  above  example,  of  zis  is  both  the  grammatical  and  the 
logical  modifier  of  the  subject,  one.  The  grammatical  modifier  of  rq)ort 
is  of  occurrence ;  and  the  logical  modifier  is  of  this  unfortunate  occurrence. 

3.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive ;  as,  '■'■His  departure 
was  delayed." 

4.  By  an  adjective  or  participle,  taken  alone  or  with  its  adjuncts ; 
as,  "TFise  men  lay  up  knowledge;" — "■Retiring  from  pvhlic  life,  he 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  days  to  study  and.  meditation." 

What  are  tlte  different  ways  in  which  a  grammatical  subject  may  be 
modified  f     G-ive  an  example  of  each  class. 


MODIFIED    PREDICATE.  llY 

Obs. — m  the  above  examples,  wise  h  both  the  grammatical  and  the 
lot^ical  mc'llier  of  the  subject,  men;  the  grammatical  adjunct  of  he  ia 
retiring ;  tu    'ogical  adjunct,  retiring  from  puMic  life. 

5.  By  a  verb  in  the  infinitive,  taken  alone  or  -with  its  adjuncts;     ^ 
as,  "His  desire  to  improve  was  greatly  strengthened  j" — "His  eflbrta 

io  acquire  knowledge  were  not  unrewarded." 

6.  By  an  entire  clause;  as,  "The  man  ivho feels  himsdf  ignorant, 
should  at  least  be  modest." 

ModiJicatio7is  of  the  Grammatical  Predicate. 

§  167.  A  grammatical  predicate  may  be  modified  in  the  following 
difierent  ways : — 

1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject,  taken 
either  alone  or  with  its  adjuncts ;  as,  "  She  walks  a  queen." 

2.  By  the  object  of  the  verb,  taken  alone  or  with  its  adjuncts;  as, 
"  No  man  forgets  his  oi'iginal  trade" 

3.  By  an  adverb,  taken  alone  or  with  its  adjuncts ;  as,  "  He  is 
very  seldom.seen." 

4.  By  a  verb  in  the  infinitive,  i^ken  alone  or  with  its  adjuncts ; 
as,  "  He  desires  to  study  French." 

5.  By  an  adjective  or  participle  referring  to  the  subject,  taken 
alone  or  with  its  adjuncts;  as,  "He  y^&s  faithful  to  his  employers ;'* 
— "  The  ball  was  left  suspended  by  a  thread." 

6.  By  a  preposition  and  its  object,  taken  by  themseb^es  or  with 
modifyiag  adjuncts;  as,  "He  has  returned  to  his fi-iends." 

7.  By  an  entire  clause ;  as,  "  I  am  informed  that  he  is  about  to  leave 
usr 

■      EXERCISES. 

§  168.  "  Every  person's  safety  requires  that  he  should  submit  to 
be  governed." — "  The  desire  to  see  and  hear  what  is  new  is  uni- 
versal."— "  The  relations  between  man  and  man  cease  not  with  life." 
— "  He  tliat  getteth  wisdom,  loveth  his  own  soul." — "  Every  blade  of 
grass  is  a  representative  of  nature." — "  How  easQy  are  men  diverted 
from  a  good  object." — "  Richard  lost  no  time  in  giving  the  sanction 
of  a  coronation  to  his  title." — "  The  finest  hair  casts  a  shadow." — 
"Pull  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unSeen." — 

la  what  ways  may  a  grammatical  pre  iicate  he  modified  ?  Give  an  ex 
ample  of  each  doss. 


118  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

"  But  he,  our  gracious  Master,,  kind  and  just. 
Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust." 

Let  the  pupil  point  out  the  grammatical  subjects  and  the  grammatical 
predicates,  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  and  tell  how  each  is  modified. 

"Write  a  sentence  containing  a  grammatical  subject  modified  by  an  ap- 
position noun; — one  containing  a  grammatical  subject  modified  by  a 
preposition  and  its  object ; — modified  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  pos- 
sessive;— modified  by  an  adjective; — by  a  participle; — by  a  verb  in  the 
iulinitive; — by  an  entire  clause. 

"Write  a  sentence  containing  a  grammatical  predicate  modified  by  a 
noun  ii'  the  same  case  as  the  subject; — one  containing  a  grammaticial 
predicate  modified  by  the  object  of  the  verb; — by  an  adverb; — by  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive; — by  an  adjective  referring  to  the  subject; — by  a  prep- 
osition and  its  object; — ^by  an  entire  clause. 

Classification  of  Seniences. 

§  169.  ■'The  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  either  dependent 
or  independent. 

An  independent  clause  is  one  that  makes  complete  sense  of  itself; 
as,  "  The  trees  wave,  the  birds  sing,  and  all  is  life."  Each  of  the 
three  clauses  in  this  sentence  is  independent. 

A  dependent  clause  is  one  tliat  makes  complete  sense  only  in  con- 
nection with  another  clause ;  as,  "  He  will  fall  a  victim  to  lais  habits, 
unless  he  7-^forms."  In  this  sentence,  the  fh-st  clause  is  independent 
and  the  second  is  dependent. 

§  170.  A  coordinate  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
clauses  so  combined  that  each  of  them  is  complete  and  independent 
of  itself;  as,  "It  was  night  and  the  moon  shone  brightly  ;" — "A 
prince  may  grant  titles,  or  wealth  may  purchase  them ;  but  virtue 
alone  ennobles  man." 

The  members  of  a  coordinate  sentence  are  called  coordinate 
clauses.* 

Into  tvhat  two  classes  are  clauses  divided?  What  is  an  independent 
clause  ?  Examples.  A  dependent  ckmse.  Examples.  Define  a  coordinate 
sc'idence.    Example.     Wfiat  are  the  mefnhers  of  a  coordinate  sentence  called? 

*  The  followin.g  subdivision  of  coordinate  sentences  is  introdnced  by 
Kiihner  in  both  his  Latin  and  his  Greek  Grammar;  and  it  has  also  been 
employed,  wil.))  some  im.difications,  by  othrr  ai>thors.     It  embraces  distino- 


EXEttCISES.  119 

§  171.  A  complex  sentence*  consists  of  two  or  more  clauses  so 
combined  that  one  of  them  is  dependent  upon  another ;  as,  "  He 
will  be  pardoned,  if  he  repents." 

That  member  of  a  complex  sentence  on  which  the  others  depend, 
is  called  the  principal  or  leading  clause^  and  dependent  members  are 
called  subordinate  clauses.  In  the  following  examples  of  complex 
sentences,  the  principal  clauses  are  printed  in  Koman  letters,  and 
the  subordinate  clauses  in  Italics  : — "  It  cannot  be  questioned,  thai 
Icnowhdge  confers  power ;" — "  The  Britons,  with  whom  CcBsar  con- 
tended^ defended  their  country  bravely;" — "  Where  your  treasure  is, 
there  will  your  heart  be  also." 

Remark. — Suim-dinaie  members  of  a  complex  senteace  are  often 
coordinate  in  respect  to  each  other;  as,  "He  has  gone  whet-e  friends 
are  never  false  and  disappointment  is  unknown."  The  last  two  clauses 
in  this  sentence  are  subordinate  to  the  first  clause,  and  coordinate  to  each 
other. 

Note. — ^Wlule  most  compound  sentences  may  be  readily  distinguished 
as  either  coordinate  or  complex,  there  are  others  in  vvhlch  this  distinction 
is  not  well  marked.  They  seem  to  occupy  middle  ground  between  these 
two  classes.  The  following  is  an  example : — "  Employ  the  present  wisely, 
for  the  future  is  uncertain."  Sentences  of  this  description  are  usually  re- 
garded as  coordinate ;  but  the  clause  in  Italics  is  obviously  as  distinct 
from  clauses  strictly  indeperulent  and  coordinate,  as  it  is  from  many  clausi^a 
that  are  called  subordinate.];  In  analyzing  a  sentence  in  which  the  sub- 
joined clause  sustains  a  relation  that  is  not  strictly  either  coordinate  or 
subordinate,  it  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  relation  of  the  clauses  to  each 
other,  without  attempting  to  make  a  distinction  that  does  not  properly 
exist.  In  the  example  cited  above,  the  clause,  for  the  future  is  unc&rtain, 
is  subjouied  to  the  leading  clause  to  assign  a  reason  why  the  present  should 
be  wisely  improved. 

What  is  a  complex  sentence  ?  Example.  How  are  the  rnemhers  of  a 
complex  sentence  divided?     Examples. 

tious  which  are  often  difficult  to  decide,  and  which  are  in  many  cases  of 
little  practical  utility. 
The  relation  of  coordinate  clanses  is, — 

1.  Copulative,  which  is  expressed  by  and,  both  and,  also,flr$t,  second,  etc. 

2.  Adversative,  which  is  expressed  by  but,  yet,  jievertheless,  hut  yet,  etc. 

3.  Disjunctive,  which  is  expressed  by  or,  either  or,  else,  etc. 

4.  Causal,  which  is  expressed  hj/or,  n-iimely,  to  wit,  surely,  etc 
*  See  pe  Sacy,  Greene,  Fowfer,  and  Clark. 

t  Sec  Mnllignn,  p.  4)0. 


120  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

EXERCISES. 

§  172.  "  There  are  many  peculiarities  in  plants,  which  excite  tho 
greatest  interest." — "  Hear  instruction  and  be  wise." — "  The  shrill 
whistle  again  sounded,  when  a  blast  from  a  bugle  roused  every  soul 
in  an  instant." — "  The  night  was  dark,  the  storm  raged  furiously, 
and  the  shipwrecked  mariners  were  in  despair." — "If  the  world 
were  to  see  our  real  motives,  we  should  be  ashamed  of  some  of  our 
best  actions." — "  Many  of  the  young  Athenians,  who  observed  tho 
confusion  and  difficulty  of  the  old  man,  made  signs  that  they  would 
accommodate  him,  if  he  came  where  they  sat." 

"Which  of  the  foregoing  compound  senteuces  are  coordinate  ?  "Which 
are  complex  ?  Point  out  all  the  independent  clauses ; — all  the  dependent 
clauses.     Point  out  the  leading  clause  in  each  of  the  complex  sentences. 

Write  a  compound  sentence  containing  two  coordinate  clauses ;  — one 
containing  three  coordinate  clauses ; — a  complex  sentence  containing  one 
principal  and  one  subordinate  clause ; — a  complex  sentence  containing 
one  principal  and  two  subordinate  clauses. 

Classification  of  Subordinate  Clauses. 

§  173.  Most  of  the  clauses  that  are  regarded  as  subordinate  may 
be  reduced  to  three  general  classes: — substantive,  adjective,  and  ad^ 
verbial* 

A  suhstantive  clause  is  one  that  performs  the  office  of  a  noun ;  as, 
"  He  knows  that  you  were  the  cause  of  his  defeat."  The  clause  in 
ItaUcs  is  here  used  as  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  knows. 

An  adjective  clause  is  one  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective ; 
as,  "  He  that  hath  knowledge,  spareth  his  words."  The  clause,  that 
hath  knowledge,  is  used  as  an  adjective,  Umiting  he. 

An  adverhial  clause  is  one  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adverb ; 
as,  "  An  honest  man  speaks  as  he  thinks."  The  clause,  as  he  thinks, 
is  employed  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  speaks. 

Eow  are  subordinate  clauses  divided?     What  is  a  substantive  clause? 
•Example.     An  adjective  clause f    Example.    An  adverbial  clause f    Ex- 
ample.    What  other  application  is  made  of  the  terms  substantive,  adjective, 
and  adverbial  ? 

*  This  division  of  subordinate  clauses  is  borrowed  from  the  German 
grammarians,  apd  was  first  introduced  into  the  grammar  of  our  o^vn  lan- 
guage by  George  Crane,  of  London.  The  mosf  thorough  and  elaborate 
expansion  of  this  system  of  ckissification  is  contained  in  Mulligan's  Gram- 
matical Structure  of' the  English  Language. 


ILLUSTRATIVE    EXAMPLES.  121 

§■  174.  Phrases,  like  clauses,  may  be  distinguished  as  substantive, 
adjective^  or  adverhiul. 

In  the  sentence  '■'•Doing  noiliing  is  \borious,"  doing  nothing  is  a 
btihstantive  phrase,  used  as  the  subject  J)f  w. 

In  the  sentence,  "  This  is  a  scheme  cfhis  own  d(vinng"  the  phrase 
m  Italics  limits  scheme,  and  is  called  an  adjective  phrase. 

In  the  sentence,  '•'■Eg  attending  to  these  directions,  we  shall  save 
ourselves  much  trouble,"  the  phrase  in  Italics  modifies  the  predicate, 
ailv3  is  called  an  adverbial  phrase. 

EXERCISES. 
§  175.  "We  cannot  reap,  where  we  have  not  sown." — "Tho 
man  Avho  instructs  me,  is  my  friend." — "That  we  should  love  our 
enemies,  is  a  divine  command." — "  By  these  means,  he  was  enabled 
to  escape." — "  To  write  well,  is  difficult." — "  A  man  of  cultivated 
intellect  possesses  the  power  of  innumerable  enjoyments,  of  which 
the  rude  and  illiterate  are  wholly  deprived." 

Point  out  the  suhstantive  clauses  in  the  foregoing  sentences ; — th  '  adjective 
clauses ; — the  adverbial  clauses.  Point  out  one  or  more  suhstantive  phrases; 
— one  or  more  adjective  phrases ; — one  or  more  adverJ}ial  phrases. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  sulstantive  clause ; — one  containing  an  ad- 
jeclive  clause; — one  containing  an  adverbial  clause.  Write  a  sentence  con- 
taining a  substantive  phrase; — one  containing  an  adjective  phrase; — o^ie 
containing  an  adverbial  phrase. 

§  176.  Illustrative  Examples  of  Complex  Sentences. 

[Tho  most  abstruse  aud  difficult  principles  in  the  science  of  grammar 
are  involved  in  the  disposition  of  subordinate  clauses.  Tho  following 
examples  emljraee  a  considerable  number  of  the  practical  difficulties  that 
arise  in  analyzing  complex  sentences ;  and  tlie  explanations  accompany- 
ing them  will  bo  more  useful  to  the  learner  than  a  series  of  abstract  rules. 
Beginners  should  not  attempt  to  point  out  any  but  the  plainer  and  more 
obvious  distinctions  of  clauses:  obscure  and  intricate  -examples  will  re- 
quire the  best  efforts  of  the  most  disciplined  minds.] 

Subordinate  Substantive  Clauses. 

§  177.  '■^Tliat  the  earth  is  spherical,  may  be  clearly  demonstrated." 
'-»"  He  heard  that  the  enemy  had  fled."  The  subordinate  clause, 
thai  the  earth  is  spherical,  is  here  employed  as  the  subject  of  the 
principal  verb,  may  be  demonstrated ;  and  the  subordinate  clause, 
that  the  enemy  had  fled,  is  the  object  or"  the  verb  heard.     These  are 

Give  an  example  of  each  class. 
6 


122  .  '       SYNTAX.—  ANALYSIS 

examples  of  a  large  class  of  nominative  and  objective  clauses  intro 
duced  by  that. 

§  178.  "It  may  be  clearly  demonstrated,  tliat  the  earth  is  spheri- 
cal.'^ This  is  a  different  form  of  the  sentence  given  above.  The 
word  it  is  here  used  as  an  inceptive  substitute  for  the  clause,  that  iha 
ea-rth  is  spherical,  -which  is  stiU  to  be  regarded  as  the  subject  of  the 
principal  verb.  Tliis  idiom  presents  an  example  of  pleonai^m,  but 
not  of  apposition.* 

§  ]  79.  "  Who  plotted  the  coiispiracy,  has  never  been  discovered." 
— "  I  have  forgotten  ivhose  portrait  it  was."  The  first  example  con- 
tains a  nominative  clause,  and  the  second  an  objective  clause.  Sen- 
tences like  these  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  in  which  the 
antecedent  of  the  pronoun  is  understood.  W%o  and  whose  are  here 
used  absolutely,  and  have  properly  no  antecedents,  either  expressed 
or  implied.  But  in  the  example,  "  TT7io  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash," 
the  pronoun  who  relates  to  he  understood. 

§  180.  "  His  decision  was,  that  thegarrkon  should  be  swi-endered." 
The  suborduiate  clause  in  tliis  sentence  is  used  as  a  predicate  nom- 
inative. 

§  181.  "  The  plea,  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  law,  did  not  vindi- 
cate his  conduct."  That  he  was  ignorant  of  the  law,  is  a  substantive 
clause,  in  apposition  with  plea. 

Siihordincite  Adjective  Clauses. 

§  182.  "  The  time  luhen  Enner  lived,  is  not  certainly  known."— 
"  He  enrolled  such  as  pi^esented  themselves." — "  The  consciousness 
that  ive  are  responsible  agents,  should  govern  all  our  actions."  In 
ihe  foregoing  sentences,  the  adjective  clauses  qualify  respectively 
the  words  time,  such,  and  consciousness.  In  the  last  example,  the 
subordinate  clause  is  in  apposition  with  consciousness  ;  but  words  in 
apposition  are  always  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns. In  the  analysis  of  sentences,  both  nouns  in  apposition  and 
apposition  clauses  are  regarded  as  performing  the  office  of  adjectives. 

§  183.  "  The  dread  of  censure  ought  not  to  prevail  over  what  is 

*  See  Snle  V.,  Kem.  1,  Obs. 

"  It  is  not,  as  we  tliint,  perfectly  con-ect  to  say,  that  either  a  proposition 
or  a  word  is  in  apposition  witli  that  wliicli  really  serves  as  its  representa- 
tive. Such  extension  of  the  term  apposition  is  not  to  be  defended." — 3ful- 
ligan. 


EQUIVALENT  EXPRESSIONS.  123 

right."  The  word  what  here  performs  the  office  of  both  antecedent 
and  relative.  As  relative  it  i-  used  in  connection  with  is  rigid  to 
form  the  adjective  clause,  what  is  right;  and  this  clause  qualifieg 
what,  used  as  antecedent.     See  §  79. 

§  1S4.  "  The  colonist  leaves  a  garden  where  he  found  a  luilderness." 
The  adverbial  clause  in  this  sentence  denotes  place,  and  modifiea 
the  predicate,  leaves  a  garden. 

§  185.  " Tou  "write  so  illegibly,  that  no  one  can  read  yonr  letters" 
The  adverbi-al  clause  here  denotes  manner.  It  is  employed  to  give 
intensity  to  the  meaning  o^  illegibly. 

§  186.  "  We  must  spare  in  youth,  that  ive  may  not  ivant  in  age.^ 
— "  Eeprove  not  a  scorner,  lest  he  hate  thee."-    In  each  of  these  sen- 
tences, the  adverbial  clause  expresses  a  motive  or  end,  and  indicates 
the  origin  or  source  of  the  assertion  in  the  principal  clause. 

Note. — ^Examples  frequently  occur  in  ^vhich  a  subjoined  clause  does 
not  properly  modify  an}-  particular  word  or  phrase  in  the  leading  clause.* 
In  such  cases,  the  proper  mode  of  analyzing  the  sentence  is  to  point  out 
the  true  relation  and  ofBce  of  the  clause,  without  attempting  to  distin- 
guish it  as  either  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial. 

Change  of  Constmctmi. — Equivalent  Expressions.^ 

§  187.  A  single  word  or  a  phrase  is  often  employed  as  an  equiv- 
alent for  an  entii-e  clause. 

Examples: — "A  man  devoid  of  gratitude,  is  unworthy  of  pity;"  "A 
man  wlio  is  devoid  of  gratitude,  is  unworthy  of  pity." — "The  fear 
of  offending,  prevented  a  renQwal  of  liis  application;"  "The  fear 
that  he  might  offend,  prevented  a  renewal  of  his  application." — 
"The  faithful  steward  deserves  commendation;"  "TIio  steward 
w/io  is  faithful  deserves  commendation.":): — "T/ie  work  being  fin- 

What  cUfferent  forms  of  speech  are  often  employed  to  express  the  same 
idea  ?     Give  several  examples. 

*  See  Mulligan,  p.  4V4. 

t  See  Crane,  passim,  De  Sacy,  Kiiluier,  iind  iTullisrau. 

"  Sentences  in  every  language  must  consist,  of  the  same  members,  tliough 
oflea  ditterently  expressed  :  it  is  in  a  great  m.easure  upon  the  inode  of  their 
expression  that  the  genius  of  a  language  depends,  and  it  is  the  faculty  of 
anprceiating  these  i)eculiaritie3  promptly  and  accurately  that  constitutes 
the  grammarian." — Crane. 

%  Wcsiu-peat  that  the  adjective  modification  is  a  refinement  on  the  ad^- 
Jeefloe  accesnonj  modification — a  mere  al:)breviation  of  tlie  acces'  ory,  alwaj-a 
iinplyhig  a  suppressed  predication." — Mulligan. 


124  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

ished,  we  all  returnee!  home;"  "Wlien  the  work  was  ji%ishcd,  we 
all  returned  home." — "The  king,  extending  Ms  hand,  smiled  gi'a- 
ciously,  and  raised  the  suppliant;"  "The  king  extended  his  hand, 
smiled  graciously,  and  raised  the  suppliant." — "I  know  him  to  be 
wise;"  "I  know  that  he  is  wise." — "This  discovery  was  made  by 
K'eM'ton,  the  greatest  philosopher  of  his  age;"  "This  discovery  was 
made  by-Xewton,  who  was  the  greatest  philosopher  of  his  age." 

Rem. — The  learner  will  find  it  a  useful  employment  to  select  different 
examples,  and  exercise  his  judgment  and  ta.ste  in  deciding  whether  the 
abridged  or  the  expanded  form  of  expression  is  to  be  preferred.  When 
both  are  equally  elegant,  it  is  generally  better  to  employ  the  abridged 
form.  * 

EXERCISES. 

§  188.  "  Tlie  clouds  having  dispersed,  the  travellers  departed." — 
''  I  know  thee  to  be  expert." — "  A  man  wlio  is  honest,  can  be  safely 
trusted." — "  Wolsey,  the  son  of  a  butcher  at  Ipswich,  became  a  car- 
dinal."— "  And  Barnabas  determined  to  take  with  them  John,  whose 
surname  was  Mark." — "When  different  forms  of  expression  are 
equally  elegant,  it  is  generally  best  to  employ  the  shortest." — "  The 
object  is  so  high  that  it  is  invisible." 

Change  the  form  of  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences,  substituting  a  clause 
for  an  abridged  expression,  or  an  abridged  expression  for  a  clause,  and  ex- 
plain the  change. 

Write  three  sentences  containing  abridged  expressions,  and  three  equivalent 
sentences  in  which  these  ab7-idged  forms  are  expanded  into  clauses. 

§  189.  Besides  the  examples  that  occur  of  clauses  equivalent  to 
words  or  phrases,  or  of  words  or  phrases  equivalent  to  clauses,  there 
are  numerous  other  instances  in  which  a  Avord,  phrase,  or  sentence 
may  be  modified  in  form  without  materially  affecting  the  sense ;  ag, 
"James  heard  the  sound;"  "The  sound  was  heard  by  James;" — • 
"  The  stranger  was  without  a  penny  ;"  "  The  stranger  was  pennHesx." 

Two  or  more  simple  sentences,  standing  disconnected  from  one 
another,  may  often  be  united  in  one  compound  sentence ;  or  a  com- 

Name  other  examples  in  which  equivalent  forms  of  expression  may  be 
used.  What  equivalent  may  ive  employ  for  two  or  more  simjile  sentences, 
standing  disconnected  from  one  another? 

*  "  In  defitiincr  a  substantive,  the  genius  of  our  language  leans  to  the 
brsvity  of  the  verbal  subst-antive  or  tlie  infinitive,  rather  than  to  the  inore 
formal  method  of  an  entire  sentence." — Grane. 


EQUIVALENT    EXPRESSIONS.  125 

pound  sentence  may  be  resolved  into  two  Dr  more  simple  and  dis- 
connected sentences. 

Example: — "Man  is  a  rational  being.  He  is  endowed  with  the 
highest  capacity  for  happiness.  He  sometimes  mistakes  his  Dost 
interests.  He  sometimes  pursues  trifles  with  all  his  energies.  He 
sometimes  considers  them  the  principal  objects  of  desire  in  this 
fleeting  world."— ^"  ilan,  who  is  a  rational  being,  endowed  >vith 
the  higliest  capacity  for  happiness,  somethnes  mistakes  his  best 
interests,  and  pursues  trifles  with  aU  his  energies,  considering  them 
the  principal  object  of  desire  in  this  fleeting  world." 

Five  simple  sentences  are  here  united  in  on."  ,orapound  sentence, 
•which  contains  only  three  clauses.  Who  and  and  are  introduced 
as  connectives,  and  participial  phrases^re  employed  instead  of  the 
second  and  fifth  of  the  simple  sentences. 

Note. — We  cauuot  write  a  single  paragraph  without  being  required  to 
choose  between  tlifl'ereut  forms  of  expression  that  are  neai'ly  equivalent 
ui  meaning.  One  of  the  last  sentences  above  was  fij'st  written,  "  Five 
simple  sentences  are  here  united  in  one  compound  sentence,  cordaining 
only  three  clauses,"  and  afterwards  changed  to  the  form  in  which  it  now 
stands.  The  success  of  tlie  learner  in  choosing  the  best  words  and  the 
best  forms  that  may  bo  given  them  when  combined  in  sentences  and 
phrases,  is  the  measure  of  his  attainment  in  tlie  art  of  sjieaking  and  writ- 
ing. This  power  must  bo  acquired  mainly  by  familiarity  with  good 
speakers  and  writers,  and  by  frequent  practice  of  the  art  itself. 

EXERCISES. 

§  190.  "  This  piece  was  Avritten  in  1820,  at  which  time  Southey 
was  poet  laureate." — "  The  wolf  was  devomed  by  the  lamb." — "  The 
danger  could  not  be  avoided." — "  In  his  manners  he  was  free  from 
affectation." — "  When  do  you  intend  to  leave?" 

Change  the  form  of  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences,  preserving  the 
meaning  unaltered, 

"  A  bear  was  pained  by  the  sting  of  a  bee.  The  bear  ran  quite 
mad  into  the  bee-garden.     The  bear  overturned  all  the  hives." 

"  We  are  come  to  a  very  important  period  in  our  course.  The 
strength  of  our  political  system  is  beginning  to  be  tried.  The  ten- 
dencies of  our  institu.*  Dns  are  becoming  apparent." — B.  B.  Ed- 
wards. 


126  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

Change  each  of  the  two  foregomg  series  of  simple  sentences  into  a 
single  compound  sentence. 

"Alexandria,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  antiquity,  and 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  is  situated  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean." — "  The  art  of  writing,  -which  contrib- 
utes much  to  the  convenience  and  necessity  of  mankind,  was  not 
invented  all  at  once." — "  Sugar,  which  is  a  nutritious  article  of  food, 
and  is  obtained  in  Europe  from  the  beet-root,  is  a  staple  production 
of  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  produced  from  the  sugar-cane,  which 
is  extensively  cultivated." 

Resolve  each  of  the  foregoing  compound  sentences  into  simple  discon- 
nected sentences. 

ORDER  OF  A^^U.YSI3. 

§  191.  In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence,  the  pupil  slioukl  first 
resolve  it  into  its  logical  subject  and  logical  predicate. 

In  analyzing  the  logical  subject,  the  gi'ammatical  subject 
should  fii'st  be  pointed  out,  and  then  its  various  modifying  ad- 
juncts. These  adjuncts  themselves  should  also  be  analyzed, 
and  the  office  of  each  word  particularly  explained.  The  logical 
predicate  should  be  disposed  of  in  a  similar  manner. 

If  the  sentence  to  be  analyzed  is  compound,  the  pupil  should 
fii-st  distinguish  the  different  clauses,  point  out  the  connectives, 
tell  which  of  the  clauses  are  independent  and  which  dependent, 
and  explain  their  relation  to  one  another.  Members  that  are 
used  as  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial  clauses,  should  also 
be  pointed  out.  The  different  clauses  or  simple  sentences  may 
then  be  analyzed  in  the  manner  already  described. 

Note. — It  is  not  always  easy  to  decide  whether  a  clause  is  independent 
or  dependent  In  dou'>tful  cases,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  explain  the 
seuss  of  the  passage  and  the  relation  of  the  clauses  to  one  another. 

Pupils  slioiild  frequently  be  required  to  change  words  or  phrases  to 
equivalent  clauses,  and  clauses  to  equivalent  words  or  phrases;  and  to 
point  out  other  chmges  in  forms  and  modes  of  exj)r6ssiou  that  may  be 
«iade  without  materially  afifecting  the  sense. 


MODELS    OF    AXALYSIS.  .  127 

MODELS  OF  ANALYSIS. 

[The  Models  here  given  illustrate  very  fully  the  foregoing  principlea, 
and  should  receive  the  special  attcntiou  of  the  learner.] 

§  192.  "To  avenge  au  injuiy,  places  us  on  a  level  with  our 
enemy." 

This  is  a  sLniple  sentence.  The  logical  subject  is  to  avenge  an  injury; 
acd  places  is  on  a  level  with  our  enemy  is  the  logical  predicate.  The 
grammatical  subject  is  to  avenge,  which  here  performs  the  office  of  botn 
noun  and  verb.  An  injury  is  the  logical  object  of  to  avenge,  and  injury 
13  the  grammatical  object  Injury  is  modified  by  the  article  an.  The 
grammatical  predicate  is  places.  The  adjuncts  of  places  are  lis  and  on  a 
levd  with  our  enemy.  Us  is  the  object  of  places ;  level  is  the  object  of  on, 
which  relates  it  to  places ;  and  a  modifies  level.  With  our  etvemy  is  the 
logical  adjunct  of  levd.  Enemy  is  the  object  of  wUh,  which  relates  it  to 
level;  and  our  modifies  eneiny. 

The  form  of  this  sentence  may  be  changed  by  converting  the  infinitive 
phrase  into  a  participial  phrase : — "  By  avenging  an  injury,  we  place  our-- 
Bclves  on  a  level  with  our  enemy." 

§  193.  "Established  custom  is  not  easily  broken,  till  some 
great  event  shakes  the  whole  system  of  things." — Johnson. 

This  is.  a  compound  sentence,  embracing  two  clauses,  which  are  con- 
uected  by  the  conjunction  tiU.  First  clause : — Established  custom  is  not 
easily  broken.  Second  clause : — Some  great  event  shakes  the  wlwle  system 
of  tilings. 

The  first  clause  is  independent.  The  second  is  an  adverbial  claxise, 
modifying  the  first  and  depending  upon  it. 

Analysis  of  the  jirst  clause : — ^The  logical  subject  is  established  custom  : 
and  is  not  easily  broken  is  the  logical  predicate.  The  grammatical  subject 
is  custom,  which  is  modified  by  the  participial  adjective  established.  The 
grammatical  predicate  is  is  broken,  which  is  modified  by  the  adverbs  not 
and  easily. 

Analysis  of  the  second  clause : — The  logical  subject  is  some  great  event, 
and  the  logical  predicate  is  shakes  the  whole  system  of  things.  The  gram- 
matical subject  is  event,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  some  and  great. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  sJiakes,  which  is  modified  by  its  logical  ob- 
ject, the  whole  system  of  things.  The  grammatical  object  of  shakes  is  sys- 
tem, which  is  modified  by  the  adjuncts  the,  whole,  and  of  Odngs.  Of  showa 
Hie  relation  between  system  and  things. 

The  form  of  this  sentence  may  be  changed  by  converting  the  word 


128  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

established  into  a  relative  clause : — "Custom  that  is  established  is  nol 
easUy  broken,"  etc.     This  change  is  not  an  improvement. 

§  194.  "Reverence  for  our  own  moral  nature,  on  wliicli  we 
have  now  insisted,  needs  earnest  and  perpetual  inculcation." 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  embracing  tvk'o  clauses.  The  principal 
cause  is  rtver&ace.  for  our  own  moral  nature  needs  earnest  and  perpetual 
inculcation.  The  dependent  or  subordinate  clause  is  on  which  we  have  now 
insisted. 

The  subordinate  clause  is  connected  to  the  principal  clause  by  the 
relative  which.  Which  is  the  object  of  on,  which  relates  it  to  have  in- 
sisted in  the  subordinate  clause ;  and  it  relates  to  reverence,  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  verb  in  the  leading  clause. 

The  logical  subject  of  the  principal  sentence  is  reverence  for  owr  own 
moral  nature;  and  the  logical  predicate  is  needs  earnest  and  peiyetucd  in- 
culcation. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  reverence.  This  is  modified  by  the  phrase, 
for  our  own  moral  nature.  Our,  own,  and  moral  modify  nature,  and  na- 
ture is  the  object  of /or,  which  relates  it  to  reverence. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  needs,  which  is  modified  by  its  logical 
object,  earnest  and  'perpetual  inculcation.  The  grammatical  object  of  n&^ds 
is  inculcation,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  earnest  and  perpetvul. 
The  conjunction  and  connects  the  two  adjectives. 

In  the  subordinate  clause,  on  which  we  have  now  insisted,  we  is  both  the 
grammatical  and  the  logical  subject.  The  logical  predicate  embraces  have 
now  insisted  and  on  which.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  Jiave  insisted, 
which  is  modified  by  rww  and  on  which.  On  and  which  have  tdready 
been  disposed  o£ 

§  195.  "He  that  is  faithful  will  be  rewarded." 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  in  winch  the  subordinate  clause,  that  is 
faithful,  is  used  to  modify  he,  which  is  the  subject  in  tlie  jrincipal  sen- 
tence, he  will  be  rewarded. 

The  relative  pronoun  thai  is  the  cormective.  TJiat  is  thf  subject  of  ts 
m  the  subordinate  clause,  and  it  relates  to  he,  which  is  the  subject  of  ±e 
principal  verb,  will  be  rewarded. 

The  logical  subject  of  the  principal  sentence  is  he  that  is  faithful;  and 
wiU  be  rewarded  is  both  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  predicate.  The 
grammatical  subject  is  he,  which  is  modified  by  the  clauso,  that  is  faithful. 

Tliat  is  faithful  is  an  adjective  clause,  qualiiyiug  he.     That  is  both  tha 


\ 


MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS,  129 

grammatical  and  the  logical  subject.     The  logical  predicate  is  isfaith/ul 
The  grammatical  predicate  la  is,  which  is  modilied  by  faithful. 

XoTE. — The  learner  will  observe  a  marked  distinction  betAvcen  the 
relative  clause  in  this  sectio  i  and  that  in  §  194.  In  this  example,  the 
relative  clause  .is  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  principal  subject 
It  is  not  he,  but  ?ie  thai  is  faithful,  who  will  be  rewarded. 

In  the  previous  example,  on  uhich  we  have  now  itisisted  is  not  a  restric- 
tive clause,  but  a  clause  added  incidentally ;  and  the  sentence  would  be 
complete  without  it : — Etverence  for  our  own  moral  nature  needs  earnsst 
and  perpetual  inculcation.  Or,  we  might  change  the  construction  and 
con\  ert  the  i  elative  clause  into  an  independent  clause : —  We  have  now 
insisttd  on  revereme  for  our  own  moral  'nature,  and  iJiis  reverence  needs 
earliest  and  perpetual  inculcation. 

So  also  in  the  sentence,  "  Tlie  consciousness  that  we  are  responsible 
agents,  should  govern  all  our  actions,"  the  subordiuate  clause  is  re.-^trictive, 
and  nmst  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  logical  subject  of  the  principal 
sentence.  But  in  the  sentence,  "Tiie  boy  had  neglected  his  lesson,  _/or 
which  he  was  severely  censured,''^  the  subordinate  clause  is  not  restrictive, 
and  should  not  be  taken  with  the  logical  subject  of  the  principal  sen- 
tence.* 

When  a  subordinate  clause  is  employed  as  an  essential  modifier  of  the 
principal  sentence,  it  is  called  an  incorporate  clause. 

§  196.  "  Praise,  said  the  sago,  with  a  sigh,  is  to  au  old  man 
an  empty  sound." 

The  relation  of  the  two  clauses  in  this  compound  sentence  is  peculiar 

*  "  Subordinate  propositions  maybe  di%ided  into  two  dasses — determin 
ative  and  explanaiory. 

"  A  determinative  subordinate  is  added  to  another  proposition,  to  deter- 
*mine  or  limit  the  sense  of  the  term  which  it  qualifies,  or  to  express  some 
indispensable  quality  respecting  it;  so  that  the  determinative  subordinate 
cannot  be  removed  from  the  sentence  without  iillectiug  or  destroying  the 
sense  of  the  proposition  wliic'a  it  qualifies. 

"  'The  messeugers  who  brout'ht  the  news  of  the  army's  defeat  were  im- 
mediately seized  and  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  magistrates.' 

"  In  this  sentence,  the  proposition,  ivho  brought  the  news  of  tJie  arm>/^» 
defeat.,  is  a  determinative  subordinate,  the  removal  of  which  would  eutireiy 
alter  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

"  The  office  of  the  expl.inatory  subordinate  proposition  in  a  sentence  is 
merely  to  explain  more  fuUy,  or  express  some  circumstance  belonging  to 
the  term  to  which  it  relates;  so  that  it  is  very  possible  to  suppress  thcex- 

Slanatory  subordinate  proposition  without  destroying,  or  even  in  the  least 
egree  injuring  the  sense  of  the  sentence. 

" '  Shakspeure,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  the 
greatest  of  all  t'.e  tnglish  poets.' 

"Here,  the  proposition,  w/to  lived  in  the  reiijn  of  Queen  Elizabetli,  is  an 
explanatory  subordinate ;  and  it  is  evident  that  its  removal  will  not  in  the 
shghtest  degree  atfect  the  sense  of  the  remaining  proposition,  which  w'U  . 
then  stand,  Shahipeare  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  English  poets,''' — Graham 
on  £nglisJi  Composition. 


130  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

The  principal  clause  is  said  the  sage,  with  a  sigh.  The  subordiuatc  clause, 
praise  is  to  an  old  man  an  empty  sound,  is  connected  to  the  principal 
clause  by  standing  as  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  said.  The  subor- 
dinate clause  here  performs  the  office  of  a  noun,  and  is  henct  called  a 
substantive  clause^  The  simple  sentences  are  analyzed  as  in  previous  ex- 
amples. 

§  197.  "  Whatever  is  done  willingly  is  done  well." 

This  is  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate  clause  is  re- 
strictive. The  connective  is  whatever,  a  compound  pronoun,  including 
■■>oth  antecedent  and  relative.  The  subordinate  clause  is  whatever  (used 
as  relative)  is  done  willingly. 

The  logical  subject  of  the  principal  sentence  is  whatever  is  done  willingly. 
The  ioo-ical  predicate  is  is  done  well.  The  grammatical  subject  is  what- 
ever (that,)  used  as  antecedent.  It  is  modified  by  the  adjective  clause, 
whatever  (which)  is  done  willingly.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  is  done, 
which  is  modified  by  well 

In  the  suljordinate  clause,  whatever  (which)  is  both  the  grammatical  and 
the  logical  subject.  The  logical  predicate  is  is  done  willingly.  The  gram- 
matical predicate  is  is  done,  which  is  modified  by  wiUinglg.  See  §  195, 
Note. 

§  198.  "We  heard  that  the  foe  had  retreated." 

lu  this  sentence,  the  subordinate  clause,  that  the  foe-  had  retreated,  is  the 
logical  object  of  the  principal  verb  heard.     This  is  another  example  of  an 

incorporated  clause.     See  §  195,  Note.     The  connective  is  that. 

We  is  both  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  subject  iu  the  principal 
sentence.  The  logical  predicate  is  heard  tluit  the  foe  had  retreated.  The 
grammatical  predicate  is  heard,  which  is  modified  by  the  substantive 
clause,  tliat  the  foe  had  retreated. 

The  subordinate  clause  is  analyzed  as  in  previous  examples. 

Note. — The  most  ditlieult  and  important  part  of  Aualysis  consists  in 
resolving  compound  sentences  into  simple  ones,  and  explaining  the  con- 
nections and  dependences  of  the  different  members.  As  soon  as  pupils 
become  familiar  with  the  analysis  of  simple  sentences,  they  should  have 
frequent  exercises  in  resolving  compound  sentences  into  clauses,  and 
pointing  out  the  connectives  and  explaining  the  relation  of  the  clauses 
to  one  another.  By  attending  to  the  office  of  the  several  clauses  in 
general  discourse,  and  omitting  for  the  time  the  analysis  of  simple 
sentences,  the  learner  will  secure  most  of  the  substantial  l^euefits  of 
ftnalyzhig  a  jiage  in  the  time  that  would   otherwise  hd  consumed   oij 


MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS.  131 

half  a  dozen  lines.*    In  the  Models  that  foUow,  attention  is  directed 
chiefly  to  the  resolution  of  compound  sentences. 

§  199.  "Rowing  is  a  healthful  exercise,  but  it  is  not  always 
free  from  danorer." 

o 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  containing  two  independent  clauses,  which 
are  conntcted  by  but. 

§  200.  "  As  your  fathers  did,  so  do  ye." 

The  principal  clause  in  this  compound  sentence  is  so  do  ye,  and  the 
Bubordinate  clause  is  as  your  fathers  did.  The  connective  is  as,  which 
coiTesponds  with  so.  The  subordinate  clause  is  adverbial,  and  the  whole 
sentence  expresses  a  comparison  of  equality. 

§  201.  "The  Romans  and  Albaus  being  on  the  eve  of  a 
battle,  an  agreement  was  made  between  them,  that  three  cham- 
pions should  be  chosen  on  each  side,  by  whom  the  victory 
should  be  determined." 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  one  independent  phrase, 
the  Romans  and  Albans  being  on  the  eve  of  a  battle,  and  three  clauses: — 

1.  An  agreement  was  made  between  them. 

2.  That  three  champions  should  be  cJiosen  on  each  side, 

3.  By  whom  the  victory  should  be  determined. 

The  connectives  are  that  and  whom.  The  first  clause  is  independent ; 
the  second  is  subordinate  to  the  first ;  and  the  tliird  is  subordinate  to  the 
second  The  second  is  an  adjective  clause,  modifying  agreement  in  the 
fiist ;  and  the  third  clause  is  explanatory  of  the  second. 

Analysis  of  tlie  independeni  phrase : — Romans  and  Albans  are  used  ab- 
solutely, with  the  participle  being.  They  are  connected  by  and  and  limited 
by  the.  Being  is  modified  by  the  phrase,  on  tJie  eve  of  a  baitie.  The  logi- 
cal object  of  on  is  the  eve  of  a  battle.  The  grammatical  object  is  eve,  which 
is  modified  by  the  and  of  a  battle.  The  logical  object  of  <^  is  a  battle,  and 
the  grammatical  object  is  battle.     Battle  is  limited  by  a. 

This  independent  phrase  may  be  expanded  into  a  clause: — "  When  the 
Romans  and  Albans  were  on  the  eve  of  a  battle,  an  agTeement  was  made." 
etc. 

§  2U2.  •'  My  sentence  is  for  open  war :  of  wiles, 

More  unexpert,  I  boast  not :  them  let  those 
Cuntrive  who  need,  or  when  they  need,  not  now : 

*  .See  Mulligan,  p.  409. 


132  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

For  while  they  sit  coiitii\dng,  shall  the  rest, 
Millions  that  stand  in  arms  and  longing  wait 
The  signal  to  ascend,  sit  lingering  here, 
Heaven's  fugitives,  and  for  their  dwelling-place 
Accept  this  dark  opprobrious  den  of  shame, 
The  prison  of  his  tyranny  who  reigns 
By  our  delay  ?"  Miltok. 

This  passage  embraces  twelve  clauses  :— 

1.  My  serdence  is  for  ope»  war. 

2.  Of  wiles,  more  untxjjert,  I  locuit  not. 

3.  Them  let  those  contrive. 

4.  Who  need. 

5.  Or  [let  them  contrive  them]  jwt  now. 

6.  When  iliey  need. 

1.  For,  shall  the  rest,  millions,  sit  lingering  here,  HeaverCs  fugitives. 

8.  T}iat  stand  in  arms. 

9.  And  longing  wait  tlie  signal  to  ascend. 

10.  While  tJtey  sit  contriving. 

11.  And  for  ilieir  dwelling-place  accept  this  dark  opprohriovs  den  of 

shame,  the  prison  of  his  tyranny. 

12.  Who  reigns  by  our  delay. 

The  first,  second,  third,  fifth,  seventh,  and  eleventh  clauses  are  inde- 
pendent ;  and  the  fourth,  sixth,  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  twelfth,  are  de- 
pendent. 

The  first,  second,  and  thu-d  clauses  have  no  grammatical  connection. 

The  fourth  is  an  adjective  clause,  qualifying  those  in  the  third  clause. 
It  is  to  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  logical  object  of  the  principal  verb  let. 
The  connective  is  who. 

Or  connects  the  fifth  clause  to  the  third, 

.  The  sixth  is  an  adverbial  clause,  subordinate  to  the  fifth,  and  modifying 
the  verb  contrive,  understood.     The  connective  is  when. 

The  tliird  and  fifth  clauses,  with  their  subordinates,  are  connected  to 
the  seventh  hjfor. 

The  eighth  and  ninth  are  adjective  clauses,  quaUfying  millions.  They 
are  connected  to  the  seventh  clause  by  thai,  and  to  each  other  by  and 

The  tenth  clause  is  adverbial,  modifying  the  predicate  of  the  seventh. 
The  connective  is  while. 

The  eleventh  clause  is  connected  to  the  seventh  bv  and.  jt 


MODELS    OF    ANALYSIS.  133 

The  twelfth  is  an  adjective  clause,  subordinate  to  the  eleventh,  and 
modifying  the  word  his.    The  connective  is  who. 

[Let  the  pupil  analyze  each  of  the  following  extracts,  according  to  the 
directions  and  illustrations  aheady  given.] 

§  203.  Leonidas  and  his  tliree  hundred  Spartans  fought 
bravely  at  ThermopyliB,  against  the  whole  Persian  army." — "In 
ancient  times,  the  benefactors  of  mankind  were  deemed  worthy 
of  immortal  honors." — "  Misfortunes  make  men  more  thought- 
ful."— "  ]!^uma  Pompilius,  the  most  fortunate  of  the  Roman  kings, 
is  said  to  have  liv'ed  above  eighty  years." — "  Industry  and  ap- 
plication will  make  amends  for  the  want  of  a  quick  and  ready 
wit." — "  A  new  order  of  cultivated  intellect  is  greatly  needed." 
— "  Those  who  attain  any  excellence,  commonly  spend  life  in 
one  pursuit." — "  Neither  genius  nor  practice  will  always  supply 
a  hasty  writer  with  the  most  proper  diction." 

"  The  consciousness  that  we  have  done  our  duty,  will  console 
us,  even  if  our  efforts  are  unsuccessful."* — ''  He  who  assists  us 
when  we  are  in  need,  is  a  true  friend." — "  What  thou  bidd'st, 
unargued,  I  obey." — "  That  the  government  of  our  desires  is 
essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  true  liberty,  is  a  truth  never  to  b«3 
forgotten  by  the  citizens  of  a  free  state." 

"  Men  of  great  and  stirring  powers,  who  are  destined  to  mould 
the  age  in  which  they  are  born,  must  first  mould  themselves 
upon  it. — Coleridge. 

"  War  will  never  cease,  while  the  field  of  battle  is  the  field  of 
glory,  and  the  most  luxuriant  laurels  grow  from  a  root  nourished 
with  blood." — Channing. 

"  The  earth  was  made  so  various,  that  the  mind 
Of  desultory  man,  studious  of  change,  , 

And  pleased  with  novelty,  might  be  indulged. 
Prospects,  however  lovely,  may  be  seen 
Tin  half  their  beauties  fade ;  the  weary  sight, 
Too  well  acquainted  with  their  smile,  slides  off 
Fastidious,  seeking  less  familiar  scenes." — Coioper. 

•*  One  independent  cla^ioe  and  two  subo»  iinate  clauses. 


134  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

§  204.    GRAMMATICAL  CONNECTION  OP  WORDS.    ' 

[Of  the  various  exercises  tliat  have  been  employed  as  collateral  aids 
to  syntactical  analysis  and  parsing,  no  one  has  proved  more  useful  or  im- 
portant than  that  of  tracing  the  grammatical  connections  and  relations  of 
the  diflerent  words  in  a  sentence.  The  method  here  presented  rehevca 
entirely  the  monotony  of  common  parsing,  and  carries  the  pupil  at  once 
to  the  true  nature  and  office  of  the  different  words.  It  has  the  advantage 
of  combining  the  essential  principles  of  both  analysis  and  parsing,  and  of 
presenting  them  in  a  condensed  and  sj-noptical  form.  If  this  method  was 
generally  adopted  in  schools,  it  would  render  the  study  of  Grammar  more 
intellectual,  and  save  much  valuable'  time.  It  should  never  take  the 
place  of  either  parsing  or  analysis,  but  be  employed  as  an  auxihary  to 
both.     It  will  be  found  specially  useful  in  conducting  reviews.*] 

EXERCISES. 

Models. 

§  205.  "  There  is  one  Being  to  wliom  we  can  look,  with  a 

perfect  conviction  of  finding  that  security  which  nothijig  about 

us  can  give,  and  which  nothing  about  us  can  take  away." — 

Greenwood. 

Point  out  the  simple  sentences  or  clauses  in  the  foregoing  passage,  and 
their  connection  with  one  another. — The  period  embraces  four  clauses: — 
Tliere  is  one  being ;  to  whom  we  can  look  with  a 'perfect  conviction  of  finding 
thai  security;  which  nothing  about  us  can  give;  which  nothing  about  us  can 
take  away.  The  second  clause  is  cormected  to  the  first  by  the  relative 
whom;  and  the  third  and  fourth  are  connected  to  the  second  by  the  rel- 
atives which  and  which.  The  third  and  fourth  clauses  are  also  connected 
to  each  other  by  and. 

Trace  the  chain  of  connection  between  the  words  away  and  is: — Away 
•modifies  can  take;  which  is  governed  by  can  take,  and  relates  to  security ; 
security  is  the  object  oi finding,  which  is  related  by  of  to  conviction;  con- 
viction ia  the  object  of  with,  which  relates  it  to  can  look;  to  expresses  the 
relation  between  wJwni  and  can  look,  and  whom  relates  to  Bei7ig,  which 
is  the  si^bject  of  is. 

Trace  the  connection  between  that  and  we: — That  defines  security, 
which  is  the  object  of  finding;  finding  is  related  by  of  to  conviction;  con- 
viction is  related  by  with  to  caji  look,  which  agrees  with  we. 

*  For  the  principal  features  of  this  system,  the  author  takes  pleasure  in 
acknowledging  liimself  indebted  to  his  firsfc  instructor  in  English  Grammar. 
T.  L.  Wright,    Esq.,  of  Eeloit,  Wlr- ,  foimjrly   Principal  of  the  Harlford 
Grammar  School,  Harlford,  Conn.,  and  our;  of  the  ablest  teachers  that  our" 
couL.try  has  produced. 

\ 


GRAMMATICAL    CONNECTION.  136 

§  206.  But  hoary  Winter,  unadorned  and  bare, 

Dwells  in  the  dire  retreat,  and  freezes  there ; 
There  he  assembles  all  his  blackest  storms, 
And  the  rude  hail  in  rattling  tempests  forms." 

Addison. 

.  Point  out  the  clauses  in  the  foregoing  passage,  and  their  connection 
with  one  another. — The  number  of  clauses  is  four.  The  first  commences 
w  ith  hoai-y  and  ends  with  retreat;  the  second  is  freezes  there;  the  third 
embraces  all  the  words  in  the  third  line ;  the  fourth,  all  the  words  in  the 
last  line,  except  and.  The  first  and  second  clauses  are  connected  to  each 
other  by  and,  in  the  second  line ;  and  the  third  and  fourth  are  connected 
by  arid,  in  the  last  Une.  Between  the  first  two  clauses  and  the  last  two, 
there  is  no  direct  grammatical  connection. 

Trace  the  chain  of  connection  between  dire  and  hare. — Dire  qualifies 
retreat;  retreat  is  the  object  of  in,  which  relates  it  to  dwells ;  dwells  agrees 
^•ith  Winter,  and  Winter  is  qualified  by  hare. 

Trace  the  grammatical  connection  between  (here,  in  the  second  line, 
and  dwells. — There  modifies  freezes;  and  connects  the  two  clauses,  of 
which  freezes  and  dwells  are  the  verbs. 

Trace  the  connection  between  h,is  and  assembles. — Sis  possfoses  storms, 
and  sionns  is  the  object  of  assembles. 

Trace  the  connection  fi-om  ratUing  to  blackest. — Rattling  qualifies  tem" 
pests ;  tempests  is  the  object  of  in,  which  relates  it  to  forms  ;  and  connects 
the  clauses,  of  which /onns  and  assembles  are  the  verbs ;  assembles  go  vera" 
sionrts,  and  blackest  qualifies  sto^-ms. 

§  207.  "  Our  cemeteries,  rigLnly  selected  and  properly  ar 
ranged,  may  be  made  subseiTicnt  to  some  of  the  highest  pm 
poses  of  religion  and  human  duty." — Story. 

In  the  foregoing  sentence,  let  the  pupil  trace  the  grammatical  connec- 
tion fi-om  selected  to  the  verb ; — fi-om  properly  to  the  verb ; — ^firom  highest 
to  subservient; — from  duty  to  subservient. 

§  208.  "  lie  who  would  advance  in  any  department  of  knowl- 
edge, must  know  what  others  have  done  before  him." — £.  B. 
Edwards. 

Trace  the  connection,  in  the  foregoing  sentence,  firom  the  verb  would 
advance  to  the  verb  must  know; — ^from  viust  know  to  /ww  done; — fi-om 

knowledge  to  would  tdvance ; — trom  him  to  otii&ts. 


136  SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

§  209.  "The  &ulti  of  a  writer  of  acknowledired  excellence 
are  more  dangeroiLs,  because  the  influence  of  his  example  is 
more  extensive ;  and  the  interest  of  learning  requires  that  they 
should  be  discovered  and  stigmatized,  before  they  have  the 
sanction  of  antiquity  bestowed  upon  them,  and  become  prece- 
dents of  indisputable  authoiity." — Johnson. 

Point  out  the  clauses  in  this  sentence,  and  their  connection  with  one 
another.  Trace  the  grammatical  connection  between  acknowledged  and 
are; — ^between  his  and  is; — more  extensive  and  are; — stigmatized  and 
learning ; — them  and  have; — iudiiputdbU  and  become.  Trace  the  chain  of 
grammatical  connection  from  authority  to  faults. 

§210.  "  There  is  a  power 

Unseen  that  niles  th'  illimitable  world. 
That  guides  its  motions,  from  the  brightest  star 
To  the  least  dust  of  this  sin-tainted  mould  ; 
While  man,  who  madly  deems  himself  the  lord 
Of  all,  is  nought  but  weakness  and  dependence. 
This  sacred  truth,  by  sure  expeiience  taught. 
Thou  must  have  learnt,  when  wandering  all  alone. 
Each,  bird,  each  insect,  flitting  through  the  skv, 
Has  more  sufficient  for  itself  than  thou." — Thomson. 

Point  out  the  clauses  in  the  foregoing  extract,  and  their  connection 
with  one  another.  Trace  the  connection  between  unseen  and  rules ; — be 
tween  guides,  in  the  third  Une,  and  is  in  the  first ; — sin-tainted  and  guides; 
— aU  and  deems; — dependence,  in  the  sixth  Lne,  and^oz/^er,  in  the  first ; — 
swe,  in  the  seventh  line,  and  learnt; — vjandtring  and  learnt; — skij  and 
Jias ; — itself  and  has; — thou,  in  the  last  line,  and  truth,  in  the  Eeveuth. 

§  211.  RULES  OF  SYNTxVX. 

Rule  I. — ^Nomixatives. 

The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative 
case;  as,  "The  moon  shines  with  borro-wed  light;" — 
'■'•Thou  shalt  not  steal." 


What  is  the  rule  respecting  nominatives  ?     Examples 


RULES.  137 

Rule  II. — Apposition. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  or  explain  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  bj  apposition,  in  the  same  case ; 
as,  "The  salutation  of  me,   Paul  f — "  Xenophon,   the 
soldier  and  historian,  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates." 

EULE    III. POSSESSIVES. 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  noun  which  de- 
notes the  thing  possessed;  as,  "The  swi^s  rays;" — "il/// 
native  land." 

Rule  IY. — Indepexdext  Case. 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  absolutely,  having  no 
dependence  on  any  other  word,  it  is  put  in  the  independent 
case ;  as,  "These  are  thy  glorious  works,  Parent  of  good ;" 
— "JEZe  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear." 

Rule  V. — Pronouns. 
Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents,  in  gender, 
number,  and  person  ;  as,  "  On  the  seventh  day,  God  ended 
his  work  which  he  had  made;" — "  Every  tree  is  known 
by  its  fruit." 

Rule  YI. — Pronouns. 

"When  two  or  more  words  denoting  different  objects  are 
taken  conjointly,  forming  one  common  antecedent,  the 
pronoun  agreeing  with  them  must  be  in  the  plural  num- 
ber;  as,  "  Virtue  and  good  breeding  render  their  posses- 
sors truly  amiable." 

Rule  YII. — Pronouns. 
When  two  or  more  outecedenta  in  the  sino-ular,  are  so 

_    •_ . ^ 5 

"What  is  the  rule  respecting  apposition  ?  Examples.  Respectiug  pos- 
sessiTes?  Examples,  llespecting  the  independent  case?  J'^xamples. 
Respecting  the  agreement  of  pronouns?  Examples.  Respecting  the 
agreement  of  a  pronoun  with  two  or  more  words  denotirg  diflbrent  ol> 
jects,  taken  conjointly?     Examples. 


138  SYJJTAX. 

connected  that  the  pronoun  agrees  with  each  term  separ- 
ately, or  with  one  of  them  exclusivelj,  the  pronoun  should 
be  in  the  singular  number. 

Examples : — "  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which 
moves  merely  as  it  is  moved;" — "He,  and  no  one  else,  was  allowed 
to  follow  his  inclinations;" — "Every  good  act  and  every  good  pm-- 
pose  wiU  receive  its  reward." 

EuLE  VIII. — Adjectives. 
Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  or  pronouns  which  they 
qualify  or  define  ;  as,  "yl  (jood  man;" — '■'•These  things." 

Rule  IX. — Verbs. — Agreement. 
A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative,  in  number  and 
person ;  as,  "  I  ^o  ;" — "  Thou  scest ;" — "  He  hearsT 

Eule  X. — Verbs. — Agreement, 

When  two  or  more  nominatives  denoting  different  objects 
are  taken  conjointly,  forming  one  common  subject,  the 
verb  agreeing  with  them  should  be  in  the  plural  number ; 
as,  "Socrates  and  Plato  ?z?ere  eminent  philosophers;" — 
"  The  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  teem  with  delighted  ex- 
istence." 

Rule  XI. — Verds. — Agreement. 

When  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  are  so  con- 
nected that  the  verb  agrees  with  each  subject  separately, 
or  with  one  of  them  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others,  the  verb 
should  be  in  the  singular  number. 


"WTiat  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  a  pronoun  with  each  of 
two  or  more  antecedents  taken  separately,  or  with  one  of  them  exclu- 
eively  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  general  rule  for  adjectivee?  Examples. 
The  rule_  respecting  the  agreement  of  verbs?  Examples.  Eespecting 
the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  two  or  more  nominatives  denoting  diflereut 
objects  taken  conjointly  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  two 
or  more  singular  nominatives  so  connected  that  the  verb  agrees  with 
each  separately,  or  with  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others? 


RULES.  139 

Examples: — "Duty,  and  not  interest,  was  his  constant  rule  of  action;" 
— "Nor  cloud,  nor  speck,  nor  stain,  breaks  the  serene  of  heaven;" — 
"Neither  astrologj,  nor  alchemy,  deserves  the  name  of  a  science;" — 
"  In  every  tribe,  superstition,  or  gratitude,  or  fortune,  has  exalted  a 
particular  family;" — "Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  was  remarkable  for 
bis  eloquence;" — "Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the 
glory." 

"  Every  tongue  and  every  eye 
Does  homage  to  the  passer-by." 

EuLE  XII. — Veres. — Government. 

Transitive  verbs,  in  the  active  voice,  govern  the  objec- 
tive case ;  as,  "  I  have  heard  him  ;" — '■^ Honor  ihj  father 
and  thj  mot  her. '^ 

Rule  XIII. — Predicate  NoiiiNATivE. 

Intransitive  and  passive  verbs  have  the  same  case  after 
them  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  thing  :  as,  ^^ Society  is  the  true  sphere  of  human 
virtue  ;" — "  Thej  wished  him  to  be  their  /ci7}(/  ;" — "//e 
soon  became  the  leader  of  his  party  ;" — "i/e  was  chosen 
librarian;" — ^^ Homer  has  been  stjled  the  jjrince  of 
poets." 

EuLE  XIV. — Government  of  the  Infinitive. 

The  infinitive  mode  may  be  governed  by  a  verb,  a  noun, 
or  an  adjective;  as,  ''^Strive  to  improve;'^ — "I  am  in 
haste  to  return  f — "The  ship  was  ready  to  sail." 

Rule  XV. — Tenses. 

In  the  use  of  verbs,  those  tenses  should  be  employed 
which  express  correctly  the  sense  intended. 

Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  transitive  verbs  ?  Examples. 
Rtspectiug  the  same  case?  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  the 
government  of  infinitives?  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting 
tenses  ? 


140  SYNTAX. 

EuLE  XVI. — Participles. 
Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns;  as,  "  He  stood 
leaning  on  his  spade,  and  (jazing  at  the  brightness  in  the 
west." 

EuLE  XVII. — Adverbs. 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs; 
as,  '■^ Islan  frequently  contend  for  trifles;" — '"It  was  very 
thankfully  received." 

EuLE   XVIII. COXJUXCTIOXS. 

Conjunctions  connect  words  or  sentences ;  as,  "  Idleness 
and  ignorance  are  the  parents  of  many  vices;" — "He 
fled  because  he  was  afraid." 

ECLR    XIX.Tr-PREPOSITIOXS. EeLATION. 

Prepositions  connect  words,  and  show  the  relation  be- 
tween them. 

Exampks: — "Ho  travelled  for  pleasure;" — "  They  were  destitute  of 
food ;" — "  This  is  an  age  OP  improvement ;" — "  Ambassadors  were 
sent  previovsly  to  the  declaration." 

Eule  XX. — Prepositions. — Government. 
Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case;  as,  "  They  came 
io  us  in  the  spb'it  of  kindness  ;^^ — ^^From  him  that  is 
needy,  turn  not  away." 

Rule  XXI. — ^Interjections. 
Interjections  hare  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other 
words  of  a  sentence;  as,  "These  were  delightful  days, 
but,  alas!  they  are  no  more." 

"What  is  the  rule  respecting  participles  ?  Examplea  "What  is  the  role 
respecting  adverbs  ?  Examples.  Respecting  conjmictions  ?  Examples. 
Respecting  the  relation  expressed  by  prepositions  ?  Examples.  "What 
do  prepositions  govern.  Examples.  "What  is  the  rule  respecting  inter- 
jections ?     Examples. 


PARSIXO.  14] 

Rule  XXIT. — Gtenerai,  Eitle. 
The  different  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  made  to  har- 
monize with  one  another ;  and  the  several  clauses  should 
be  so  constructed  and  arranged  as  to  express  clearlj  the 
various  relations,  connections,  and  dependences  intended, 
according  to  the  best  usages  of  the  language. 

§  212.  PARSING. 

[Tt  ■^vill  often  be  found  expedient,  in  parsiusr,  to  omit  the  etymological 
modilications  of  a  word,  and  give  only  its  syntax  or  constructive  office  in 
the  sentence.  Advanced  classes  sliould  attend  less  to  the  common  Ord<:r 
of  Parsing,  and  more  to  the  Analysis  of  language ;  but  learners  should  be 
required  to  parse  many  of  the  more  dilBcult  and  important  words,  at  all 
stages  of  their  progress.  It  is  hoped  that  teachers  will  take  special  pains 
to  render  the  exercises  in  jDarsing  as  intellectual  as  possible.  Pupils  should 
be  taught  that  correct  j^arsing  always  requires  correct  thinking ;  and  that 
it  is  indispensably  necessary  for  tliem  to  understand  thoroughly  the  sense 
of  any  piece  of  writing  before  they  attempt  to  parse  it.  They  should  be 
.equired  to  explain  the  more  difficult  passages,  by  transposing  the  order 
of  the  words,  or  by  expressing  the  sense  in  their  own  language ;  but  the 
words  employed  by  the  author  should  be  preserved  unaltered  in  parsing.] 

§  213.  Parsing  is  an  explanation  of  the  properties  and 
offices  of  words,  according  to  the  principles  of  grammar. 

ORDER    OF    PARSING. 

A  Noun,  and  why  ? — Common  or  Proper,  and  why  ? — Gen- 
der, and  why  ? — Person,  and  why  ? — Number,  and  why  ? — 
Case,  and  why  ? — Disposal,  and  Rule. 

An  Adjective,  and  why  ? — Class,  and  why  ? — If  a  descriptive 
adjective,  give  the  Degree  of  Comparison,  with  the  reason,^ 
Compare  it. — Disposal,  and  Rule. 

In  parsing  an  Article,  the  pupil  should  tell  whether  it  is 
Definite  or  Indefinite,  and  why ;  to  what  it  belongs ;  and  as- 
sign the  Rule.     See  Models  for  Pardng,  under  Rule  VIIL 

A  Pronoun,  and  why  ?— Class,  and  why  ? — Gender,  Number, 
a:.d  Person,  and  why? — [If  a  Relative  Pronouu,  point  out  its 
antecedent,  and  teli  what  clauses  are  connected  by  it.] — Case, 
and  why? — Decline  it,  if  declinable. — Disposal,  and  Rule, 

"Wh-at  is  the  general  rule  of  syntax?  What  is  parsing?  Give  the 
order  of  •parsing  the  different  pnrt^^  of  pppoch. 


142  SYNTAX. 

A  Verb,  and  wliy  ? — Regulai-,  or  Irregular,  and  why  ? — Prin- 
cipal parts. — Transitive  or  Intransitive,  and  why  ? — [If  tran- 
sitive, tell  whether  it  is  in  the  Active  or  Passive  Voice.] — 
Mode,  and  why  ? — Tense,  and  why  ? — Person  and  Numher,  and 
why  ? — Disposal,  and  Rule. 

In  parsing  a  Particij^le,  the  foi. owing  order  should  be  ob- 
served : — A  Participle,  and  why  ? — Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 
--Perfect  or  Imperfect,  and  wh}' ? — Transitive  or  Intransitive, 
and  why? — [If  Transitive,  tell  whether  it  is  in  the  Active  or 
Passive  Voice.] — Disposal,  and  Rule. 

An  Adverb,  and  why  ? — Class,  and  why  ? — Disposal,  and 
Rule. 

A  Preposition,  and  why  ? — Relation  expressed,  and  Rule. 

A  Conjunction,  and  why  ? — Connection,  and  Rule. 

An  Interjection,  and  why? — Rule. 

NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 
Rule  I. — ^Nominatives. 

"§>  214.  The  suliJGct  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  tbe  nom- 
inative case ;  as,  "  The  moo7i  shines  with  borrowed  light ;" 
— "  Thou  shalt  not  steal." 

Remark  1. — A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  a  sentence,  or  a  phrase, 
sometimes  performs  the  office  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nomin- 
ative; as,  ":Zb  err  is  human;" — "T^mt  one  man  should  he  punished 
for  the  crimes  of  another,  is  unjust." 

Eem.  2. — In  poetry,  the  nominative  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  Livea 
there  wlio  loves  his  ^Dain?"  When  tlie  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mode, 
the  nominative  is  frequently  omitted,  both  in  prose  and  poetry;  as,  "TbAe 
care  of  the  minutes,  and  the  hours  will  take  care  of  themselves." 

Rem.  3. — ^In  declaratory  and  conditional  sentences,  the  nominative 
usually  precedes  the  verb ;  but  hi  interrogative  and  imperative  sen- 
ter'>3S,-  the  nominative  most  commonly  follows  either  tlie  prin  .^'pal 
verb  or  an  auxiliary.  "  ^ 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  nominatives  ?     Examples.      W/iat  is  some 
limss  ixscr?  .o  sii-pply  the  place  of  a  noun  or  pivnouJi  in  the  nominah  ve  ?     Ex- 
amph'       What  position  does  the  nominative  usually  take  in  declaratory  and 
conddional  sentences  ?    In  interrogative  and  imperative  sentences  f 


KGUNS    AND    PRONOUNS.^ r.ULE    II,  143 

Observation  1.  —  The  noramative  is  also  placed  after  the  verb: — 
1.  When  a  seutence  is  introduced  by  the  expletive  adverb  there;  as, 
"  Tlwre  are  many  good  pieces  in  this  collection."  2.  AVlien  a  supposition 
is  expressed  without  the  use  of  the  conjunction  if;  as,  "  Were  there  no 
difference,  there  would  be  no  choice."  3.  When  a  sentence  is  introduced 
by  neither  or  nor,  not  used  as  a  correspondent  to  another  conjunction ;  as, 
"  The  eye  which  saw  hira  shall  see  him  no  more,  neither  shall  his  place 
any  more  behold  him." 

Obs.  2.  —  When  ivho,  which,  or  what,  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb 
in  an  interrogative  sentence,  and  also  when  which  or  what  is  used  as  an 
adjective  belonging  to  the  subject,  the  nominative  precedes  the  verb ;  as, 
"  Who  is  there  to  oppose  himi" — "What  object  will  be  accomplished  ' " 

Obs.  3.  —  Besides  the  cases  here  enumerated,  there  are  many  others  in 
which  the  nominative  may  either  precede  or  follow  the  verb,  and  for  whicb 
no  definite  rules  can  be  given. 


B,0LE  n.  —  Apposition. 
§  215.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  or  explain 
another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  bj  apposition,  in  the 
same  case;  as,  "The  salutation  of  me,  Paul;^''  — 
"  Xenophon,  the  soldier  and  Jiistoiian,  ^va3  a  disciple  of 
Socrates." 

Kem.  1.  —  Ap]X)sition  signifies  adding  to,  and  denotes  that  another 
name  is  added  for  the  same  person  or  thing. 

Rem.  2.  —  A  noun  13  sometimes  put  in  apposition  with  a  sentence 
or  phrase ;  a.s,  "  He  permitted  me  to  mal^e  free  use  of  his  valuable 
librarj' ;  —  a  kindness  which  I  shall  always  remember  with  grat- 
itude." 

Rem.  3.  —  A  noun  denoting  a  -whole  is  sometimes  followed  by 
two  or  more  words  in  apposition  with  it,  denoting  the  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed ;  as,  "  They  travelled  in  company,  some  on 
horseback,  some  in  carriages,  and  others  on  foot." 

Rem.  4.  —  A  distributive  term  in  the  singular  number,  or  a  word 
in  the  singular  modified  by  a  distributive,  is  often  put  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Tliey  have  fallen,  each 
in  his  field  of  glory."  —  Cowper.  "  They  fled,  every  man  into  his 
tent."— 1  Sam.  A:  10. 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  apposition  ?  Examples.  With  zchat  be- 
sideti  a  norm  or  pronoun  is  a  noun  sometimes  in  apposition  ?  Examples. 
What  remark  is  made  respecting  words  denoting  the  several  pniis  of  a  tchole.  ? 
Examples.  What  is  the  remark  respecting  a  distributive  term  in  the  siirgular 
sncnber,  or  a  tcord  in  the  singular  modified  by  a  di.'ttributii'e  ?.    Examples 


1 44  .SYNTAX. 

Efm.  5.  —  In  the  phrases  one  another  and  each  other,  tne  word. 
one  and  each  have  a  construction  similar  to  that  described  in  the 
last  Remark  ;  as,  "  They  confide  in  each  other  ;  "  —  "  Bear  ye  one 
anothefs  burdens."  In  the  former  of  these  sentences,  each  is  in 
apposition  with  they,  and  other  is  governed  by  the  preposition  in. 
[n  the  hitter,  one  is  in  apjDosition  with  ye,  and  another's  is  governed 
by  burdens. 

Rem.  6.  —  Two  or  more  proper  names,  appHed  to  the  same  in- 
dividual, may  be  regarded  as  forming  one  complex  noun ;  as, 
^  Thomas  Jefferson  was  the  third  president  of  the  United  States." 

Rem.  7.  —  Anomalous  cxpwssions  sometimes  occur,  in  which  a  noun 
n&ed  without  the  sign  of  possession,  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or 
p)"oroun  in  the  possessive  case;*  as,  "This  did  not  prevent  Jo/i?i'.s  being 
acknowledged  and  solemnly  inaugurated  Duke  of  Normandy." — Henry's 
Hist,  of  Brit.  "  His  eminence  as  a  judge  was  great  and  undeniable."  — 
Brow/ham.     See  Rule  18,  Rem.  10. 

Rule  in.  —  Possessives. 

§216.  The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  noun 
which  denotes  the  thing  possessed;  as,  "The  suti's  rays;" 
—  "  3Ii/  native  land."     See  §  55,  Rem.  5. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  governing  word  is  rendered  obvious  hy  the  use 
of  the  possessive,  it  is  frequently  omitted ;  as,  "  I  called  at  the  booksdl- 
er^s;"  that  is,  " at  the  bookseller's  store." 

Rem.  2.  —  "Wlien  the  thing  possessed  belongs  to  two  or  more 

possessors  conjointly,  the  sign  is  annexed  to  the  last  only  of  the 

possessive  nouns ;  as,  "  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  ; "  —  "  Andrews  and 

Stoddard's  Grammar ; "  —  "  Allen,  Morrill,  and  WardweU's  store." 

But  when  different  things  of  the  same  name  belong  severally  to 

Explain  and  illustrate  the  construction  of  the  phrases,  each  other  and  one 
another  ?  What  is  said  of  two  or  more  proper  names,  applied  to  the  sarm 
individual  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  possessives  1  Ex- 
amples. What  use  is  made  of  the  sign  when  the  thing  possessed  belongs  to 
two  or  more  possessors  conjointly  ?  Examples.  What,  when  different  things 
<jf  the  same  name  belong  severally  to  tivo  or  more  possessors  ?    Examples. 

*Grammar;ans  difi'er  widely  in  opinion  respecting  the  proper  mode  of 
pnrsing  words  of  this  cla=s.  in  the  sentence  quoted  from  Henry's  History 
G.  Brown  and  Goldsbury  would  make  the  word  Duke  a  possessiv/;,  in  appo- 
Bition  witli  Jok^i's.  Sanborn  would  make  it  independent.  _  Butler  would 
call  it  a  predicate  nominative.  H.art  would  say  that  Duke  is  used  in  the 
nominative  tndtjinite.    Bullions  would  make  it  an  objective. 


HOUNS    AND    I'ROXOUNS. — RULE    III.  146 

two  or  more  possessors,  the  sign  should  be  annexed  to  each  posses- 
sive :  as,  "  Webster's,  Worcester's,  and  Smarfs  Dictionary ; "  that  is, 
Webster's  Dictionary,  Worcester's  Dictionary,  and  Smart's  The- 
tionary. 

Rem.  3.  —  Two  or  more  words  closejly  united,  and  forming 
essendally  one  complex  noun,  have  the  sign  annexed  to  the  last 
only ;  as,  "  Henry  the  Eighth's  reign ;  "  —  "  Thomas  Jefferson's  ad- 
ministration ;"  —  "Jolin  the  Baptist's  head." 

Rem.  4.  —  "When  two  or  more  possessive  nouns  in  apposition  are 
governed  by  a  noun  expressed,  the  governing  word  is  usually  plac- 
ed after  the  others,  and  the  sign  annexed  to  the  last  only  of  the 
possessives ;  as,  "  For  David  my  servants  sake." 

Rhm.  5.  —  When  an  explanatory  term  consisting  of  several  words,  or 
a  number  of  explanatory  terms,  are  subjoined  to  a  noun  in  the  posses- 
sive, and  the  governing  word  is  understood,  the  sign  is  generally  annexed 
(o  the  first  possessive  only ;  as,  "  I  left  the  book  at  Johnson's,  a  respecta- 
ble bookseller,  and  a  worthy  man." 

Rem.  6.  —  Other  cases  sometimes  occur  for  which  no  certain  rule  can 
be  given.  Thus,  we  may  say,  "  I  called  at  IMr.  Brown,  the  jeweller's,''  or 
" I  called  at  ilr.  Browns  the  jeweller ; "  since  both  these  fonns  are  au- 
thorized by  usage. 

Rem.  7.  —  A\'Tien  a  noun  or  pronoun,  preceding  a  participle  used 

as  a  noun,  is  properly  In  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  of  possession 

should  not  be  omitted. 

Correct  Examples  :  — "  A  great  public,  as  well  as  private  advan- 
tage, arises  from  every  one's  devoting  hinrself  to  that  occupation 
which  he  prefers,  and  for  which  he  is  specially  fitted."  —  Wayland. 
"  This  is  known  by  the  moon's  always  keeping  nearly  the  same  far  e 
towards  us."  —  Olmsted. 

Falce  Syntax :  —  "Such  is  the  advantage  we  receive  from  tie 
chain  being  composed  of  so  many  links,  the  spine  of  so  many 
bones."  —  Paley.  "There  was  a  chance  of  him  recovering  his 
senses."  —  Macaulay.  "A  contemporary  scholar  speaks  of  the 
author  being  unknown."  —  Thomas  Campbell. 

What,  when  two  or  more  words  closely  united,  form  one  complex  noun  ? 
Exampks.  What  is  said  respecting  txco  or  more  possessives  in  apposition, 
governed  by  a  nintn  expressed '?  Examples.  What  care  should  be  observed 
respecting  jKissessires  before  participial  nouns  ?  Examples.  Correct  thefalae 
tyntax,  and  show  why  it  isjalse 

7 


146  SYNTAX. 

Rem.  8. -  — Wlien  we  -wish  ■»  mention  a  part  only  of  the  objscts  pee 
sessed,  we  should  employ  both  tlie  preposition  of  and  the  possessive  case, 
as,  "  An  anecdote  of  Dr.  Franklin's  j "  —  "  These  poems  are  as  good  as 
some  of  Dana's." 

Rkm.  9.  —  An  explanatory  clause  should  never  be  inserted  between  a 
possessive  noun  and  the  word  by  which  it  is  governed.  The  following 
sentence  is  faulty  in  this  respect :  —  "  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as 
she  called  him,  excellent  understanding."  It  should  be,  "  She  began  to 
eztol  the  exceHent  understanding  of  the  former,  as  she  called  him." 


Rule  IV.  —  Independent  Case. 

§  217.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  absolutely^ 
naving  no  dependence  on  any  other  word,  it  is  put  in  the 
independent  case;  as,  "These  are  thy  glorious  works, 
Parent  of  good ; "  —  "  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him 
hear." 

Rem.  1.  —  This  rule  applies, — 

(1)  ^Mien  a  direct  address  is  made,  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  has 
no  dependence  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  The  fault,  dear 
Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars,  but  in  ourselves."  This  is  the  case  in- 
dependent by  address. 

(2)  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  joined  with  a  participle  having 
no  dependence  on  any  other  word ;  as,  "  The  sun  having  risen,  we 
departed  on  our  journey."  This  is  the  case  independent  with  a 
participle. 

(3)  "Wlien  a  noun  is  used  to  introduce  the  subject  of  remark, 
and  then  left  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  The 
Pilgrim  fathers,  where-  are  they  ?  "  Tliis  is  the  case  independent 
iy  pleonasm.* 

Obs.  1.  —  This  redundant  use-of  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  generally  in- 
elegant, but  in  poetry  and  animated  prose  it  is  sometimes  employed  with 
happy  effect. 

Obs.  2.  —  A  plural  term  is  sometimes  used  emphatically  aOer  a  series 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  independent  case  ?     Examples.    Nam 
the  several  circumstances  wider  which  noum  and  pronouns  are  used  indepen- 
dently, and  give  examples  of  each  kind. 

*  For  several  of  the  divisions  emb  ■need  in  this  classification  of  words  in 
the  independent  case,  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  excellent  ti-eatise  of 
Ml'.  G.  brown. 


KOUXS  AXD  PR0X0UN3. RULE  IV.  147 

of  woids  or  ])hra.ses  comprehended  under  it ;  as,  "Ease,  fortune,  life,  all 
wjre  squandered."  —  Bancroft.  In  this  sentence,  the  words  case,  fortune, 
and  life,  may  be  regarded  as  independent  by  pleonasm.  So  also,  ii>  the 
following  sentence,  the  infinitive  verhs  may  he  regarded  as  independent 
or  absolute  hi/  pleonasm :  —  "  To  be  inurdered,  to  be  tortured,  to  be  robbed,  to 
be  sold  into  slavery,  to  be  exposed  to  the  outrages  of  gangs  of  foreign  ban 
ditti  calling  themselves  patriots, — these  are  evidently  evils  from  which 
men  of  every  religion  and  men  of  no  rehgion  wish  to  be  protected."  — 
Macaiday. 

(4)  A\nien  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  to  express  an  exclamation ; 
as,  "  ( )h,  the  miseries  of  war  ! "  This  is  the  case  independent  by 
ixclamation. 

(5)  When  a  noun,  having  no  dependence  on  any  other  word,  is 

Gsed  to  express  a  name  or  title,  as,  "  The  Sketch  Book,"  "  Day's 

Algebra ; "  or  to  denote  time,  measure,  distance,  direction,  or  place, 

as,  "  He  left  the  country  ten  years  ago,"  "  The  tree  was  found  to 

be  eighty /eei  in  height,"  "He  walked  twelve  miles."     This  is  the 

ca.se  independent  hy  ellipsis. 

0ns.  —  This  class  of  words  in  the  independent  case  is  not  intended  to 
include  those  nouns  before  which  a  preposition  is  properly  understood. 
In  all  such  examples  the  preposition  should  be  sujjplied  in  jiarsing,  and 
the  noun  made  to  depend  upon  it  in  the  objective  case.  There  are,  how- 
ever, instances  in  which  the  noun  is  not  ])roperly  dependent  on  a  prepo- 
sition either  expressed  or  implied ;  and  examples  of  this  class  should  be 
put  in  the  independent  case.* 

Rem.  2.  —  A  noun  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely  after  an  infinitive  or 
participle ;  as.  "  To  be  the  slave  of  passion  is  of  all  slavery  the  most 
wretched."  The  word  dave,  in  this  sentence,  may  be  parsed  by  Kule  4, 
in  the  independent  case.     See  Rule  8,  Rem.  14. 


S  218.  EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

fit  is  hoped  that  teachers  will  not  fall  to  insist  on  a  thorough  ]ierform 
ance  of  these  exercises.  Rules  may  be  recited  very  fluently  without  be- 
ing understood;  but  an  application  of  them  in  the  construction  of   sea- 

*  "  In  expressing  distance  or  duration,  either  in  time  or  »pace,  we  use  tlio 
nonn  absolutely;  as,  'He  walked  ten  miles ;'  — '  He  stood  three  hours.'  " 
—  Lntkam. 

"  Xonns  signifying  the  time  when,  and  ti7ne  how  long,  wergM,  measure, 
xnd  distance,  are  put  in  the  objective  case  absolute."  —  Ainsivorth. 

",Lowtb,  followed  by  the  whole  tribe  of  writers  on  this  subject,  alleges 
iorae  prepositions  to  be  understood  before  these  expressions  of  time ;  but 
this  is  a  palpable  error,  arising  from  preconceived  notions  of  the  necessity 
3!"  .sv.i.-h  words.  The  fact  is  othcrAvise.  All  these  peculiar  phrases  are 
i<liomatic;  and  the  remains  of  the  early  state  of  our  language." —  IVeSster 

See  .also  Smart,  .J.  M.  Putnam,  F.azee,  Goldsbury,  Webber,  Flower 
Allen  and  Cornwell,  Cooper,  Davenport,  and  Nutting. 


U8  SYNTAX. 

tences,  requires  a  careful  attention  to  principles,  while  it  also  aids  the 
learner  in  forniinj^  an  accurate  style  of  writing.     See  Oral  Instruction.] 

Write  sentences  containing  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  nomina- 
tive;—  containing  a  verb  in  the  injinitive,  a  sentence,  or  a  p7i?-a.s'e, 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb;  —  nouns  and  pronouns  in  apposition 
w"*li  other  words  ;  —  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  ;  — 
two  or  more  possessives,  governed  by  a  noun  denoting  joint  posses- 
sion ;  —  two  or  more  possessives,  governed  by  nouns  denoting  differ- 
ent objects  of  the  same  name;  —  two  or  more  words,  forming  esan- 
tially  one  complex  noun  in  the  possessive ;  —  tioo  or  more  possessit-es 
tn  apposition,  governed  by  a  noun  expressed ; —  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  possessive,  preceding  a  participial  noun ;  —  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  case  independent  by  address ;  —  in  the  case  independent  with 
a  participle  ;  —  in  the  case  independent  by  pleonasm  ;  —  in  the  ca.ie 
independent  by  exclamation ;  —  in  the  case  independent  by  ellipsis. 


EuLE  V.  —  Pronouns. 

§219.  Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents  m 
gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as,  "  On  the  seventh  day, 
God  ended  his  work  ivh'ich  he  had  made;"  —  "Every 
tree  is  known  by  its  fruit." 

Kem.  1.  —  The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  one  of  the  most  general 
terms  in  the  language.     It  may  be  used,  — 

(1)  To  represent  a  noun  in  the  plural  number;  as,  "  It  was  the 
heretics  that  first  began  to  rail." 

(2)  To  represent  a  noun  in  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender  ; 
as,  "  //  is  a  brother  of  the  prince  ; "  —  "  It  is  the  queen." 

(3)  To  represent  a  noun  in  the  first  or  second  person ;  as,  "  It 
isl;"— "IszO'ou?" 

(4)  To  represent  a  sentence  or  phrase ;  as,  "  It  is  impossible  to 
please  all  men ; "  — "  It  is  observed  by  Seneca,  that  prosperity 
greatly  obstructs  the  knowledge  of  ourselves." 

(5)  To  denote  some  state  or  condition  ;  as,  "  It  rains  ; "  —  "  Haa 
it  come  to  this  ?  " 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  t^e  agreement  of  pronouns  1  Examples 
Enumerate  the  pecidicr  iises  of  the  pronoun  it,  and  give  examples  of  each. 


PRONOUNS. RULE    V.  149 

(6)  II  is  sometimes  employed  m  a  vague  or  inJefinite  sense  ;  as. 

"  During  tliis  time,  they  had  lorded  it  over  the  laud  with  absolute 

sway."  — '■  Prescoll. 

Obs. —  In  most  of  the  cases  here  enumerated,  j<  is  an  inceptive  2^ro- 
noun,  used  to  form  an  easy  and  aj;rccrable  introduction  to  a  sentence. 

Rkm.  2.  —  The  personal  pronoun  (hem  should  never  be  employed 
as  an  adjective.  We  should  say,  "  Bi-iiig  me  those  books;"  —  not 
"  the>7i  books." 

Rem.  3.  —  When  two  or  more  personal  pronouns  in  the  second 

person,  are  employed  in  the  same  connection,  they  should  be  made 

to  correspond  in  style.      (§§  72,  73.)      The  foUomng  passage  la 

therefore  inaccurate  :  — 

"Enjoy  your  dear  wit,  and  gay  rhetoric 
That  hath  so  well  been  taui^ht  her  dazzling  fence ; 
Thou  art  not  fit  to  hear  thyself  convinced."  —  Milton. 

Your  should  be  thij,  to  correspond  with  thou  and  thyself. 

False  Syntax. 

"  Ere  you  remark  another's  sin, 
Bid  thy  own  conscience  look  within."  —  Gay. 
"  ^Nliat  strange  events  carl  strike  with  more  surprise 
Than  those  which  lately  struck  thy  wondering  eyes  ? 
Yet,  taught  by  these,  confess  th'  Almighty  just, 
And  where  you  can't  unriddle,  learn  to  trust."  —  Parnell. 

Rem.  4.  —  Tlie  use  of  different  relatives  in  the  same  sentence  referring 
to  the  same  antecedent,  should  generally  be  avoided.  The  following  sen- 
tence is  faulty  in  this  resjiect:  —  "  I  have  amused  myself  with  remarking 
some  of  the  motley  characters  that  have  thus  usurped  the  ancient  abode 
of  royalty,  and  who  seem  as  if  placed  licre  to  give  a  farcical  termination 
to  tiie  dr;una  of  human  pride."  —  Irving.  Who  should  be  changed  to 
tluit.  to  correspond  with  that  in  the  preceding  clause. 

Rem.  5.  —  Monarchs  and  editors  of  periodical  publications  often 
employ  the  plural  form  of  a  pronoun  in  the  first  -jierson,  instead  of 
the  singular  ;  as,  "  We,  taking  into  our  royal  consideration  the  vari- 
ous disorders  and  abuses,"  etc.  — "  We  charge  you,  on  allegiance 
to  ourself;"  —  "  We  cheerfully  admit  the  following  communication 

What,  inifyrpper  use  is  sometimes  made  of  the  pronoun  them  ?  lUttstrnti 
Wliat  rule  shmdd  be  observed,  when  tivo  or  more  persixnal  pronouns  in  the  second 
person  an  employed  in  the  same  connection  ?  CoiTect  (he  false  syntax,  and 
show  why  it  is  false.  What  form  of  expression  is  peculiar  to  sovereiyns  arid 
editors  of  ycriodical  piihlications  ?    Examples, 


150  SYNTAX. 

into  oui  columns,  but  do  not  hold  ourself  responsible  for  the  senti- 
ments which  it  embodies." 

Rem.  G.  —  The  relative  ivho  is  applied  to  persons,  and 
which  tc  irrational  animals  and  inanimate  thin-^s ;  as, 
"  Homer,  ivho  wrote  the  Iliad  ; "  —  "  The  man  ivhom  we 
saw ; "  —  "  The  horse  which  Alexander  rode  ; "  —  "  The 
rain  which  fell." 

Obs.  —  The  prononn  who  should  not  be  used  to  represent  a  name 
which  is  taken  as  a  word  merely.  Thus,  "  The  court  of  queen  Elizaheih, 
who  was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy,"  should  !>e,  '"  The 
court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  whose  name  was  but  another  word  lor  prudence 
and  economy." 

Rem.  7.  —  The  pronoun  that  is  applied  either  to  persons  or 
things ;  as,  "  He  that  hath  knowledge,  spareth  his  words ; "  —  "  The 
bird  that  Sting  so  sweetly  ; "  — "  The  house  that  was  built  la^t  year." 

Obs.  1.  —  That  should  be  employed  in  preference  to  wlio  or 
which,  — 

(1)  AVhen  its  use  ■will  prevent  an  unpleasant  repetition  of  either 
of  these  pronouns ;  as,  "  "Who  that  is  not  blinded  by  prejudice  will 
believe  this  report  ?  " 

(2)  "WTien  persons  form  a  part  only  of  the  antecedent ;  as,  "  The 
men  and  things  that  he  saw." 

(3)  After  a  collective  noun  denoting  a  body  of  persons;  as, 

"  The  army  that  was  defeated  was  composed  of  veteran  soldiers." 

Obs.  2.  —  There  are  other  cases  in  which  that  maybe  employed  or  not, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  wTiter;  as,  "He  that  formed  the  eye, shall  he 
not  see  1 "  —  Ps.  94  :  9.  "  He  wfio  plants  an  oak,  looks  forward  to  future 
ages,  and  plants  for  posterity."  — Irving.  "  There  is  a  serene  and  settled 
majesty  in  woodland  scenery,  that  enters  into  the  soul,  and  dilates  and 
elevates  it,  and  fills  it  wi«h  noble  inchnations." — Ibid. 

Rem.  8.  —  The  possessive  whose  is  applied  to  both  persons  and 

things  ;  as,  "  Franklin,  whose  name  will  ever  be  remembered ; "  — 

"  Virtue,  ichose   reward  is   lasting ; "  —  "  Frowning   rocks,  whose 

lofty  sunmiits."     See  §  78,  Note. 

"What  distinction  is  observed  in  the  use  of  who  and  which  f  Select 
several  examples  of  each  from  other  works.  To  what  is  the  pronoun  that 
applied  ?  Examples.  When  is  that  employed  in  preference  to  who  or  which  % 
Examples  of  each  class.  To  wliat  is  the  possessivt  whose  applied  f  £r 
vnples. 


PROXOL'NS. RULE    V.  151 

Rem.  9.  —  When  two  or  more  pronouns,  oi*  nouns  and  pronouns, 
of  different  persons,  are  closely  united  in  the  same  coustruetion, 
the  "word  which  is  in  the  second  person  shoukl  generally  be  placed 
first,  and  that  in  the  first  person,  last;  as,  "You  and  Charles,  and 
I,  were  engaged  in  the  same  transaction  ;  "  —  "  You  and  your  fiiend 
were  absent ; "  —  "  IMy  brother  and  I  were  detained." 

Rem.  10.  —  The  word  what  sliould  not  be  used  for  the  conjunction  that, 
nor  that  for  the  compound  relative  what.  Tlie  foilowing  sentences  are 
faulty  in  tliis  respect :  —  "  They  would  not  believe  but  what  he  v/as  guil- 
tj- ; "  —  "  We  speak  tlioi  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have  seen." 

Rem.  11. —  Relatives  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  all  ambi- 
guity in  regard  to  the  words  which  they  are  intended  to  represent. 
The  following  sentence  is  therefore  objectionable:  —  "He  is  un- 
worthy the  confidence  of  a  fellow-being  that  disregards  the  laws  of 
his  Llaker."  Corrected  :  — "  He  that  disregards  the  laws  of  his 
^laker,  is  unworthy  of  the  confidence  of  a  fellow-being." 

Obs.  — "  I  am  the  man  who  command  you."  This  sentence  is  ambig- 
uous, and  may  be  corrected  in  two  ditforeut  ways.  If  who  is  intended  to 
refer  to  /,  we  should  say,  '  I  who  command  you,  am  the  man."  But  if 
tdio  is  intended  to  refer  to  man,  then  we  should  say,  "  I  am  the  man  who 
commands  you." 

Rem.  12.  —  In  femiliar  language,  the  relative  is  sometimes  improperly 
omitted.  Thus,  "  He  is  a  man  I  greatly  esteem,"  should  be,  "  He  is  a 
man  tvhom  I  greatly  esteem."  So  also,  "  I  am  dissatisfied  with  the  man- 
ner I  have  spent  my  time,"  should  be,  "  I  am  dissatisfied  with  the  manner 
ill  which  I  have  spent  my  time." 

Rem.  is. —  Wluiteivr  is  sometimes  employed  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  rendering  a  word  or  phrase  emphatic ;  as,  "  No  condition  whatever." 

Rem.  14. —  What  is  sometimes  used  adverbially,  in  the  sense  of  partli/, 
or  in  part ;  as,  "  What  with  '  wooding '  at  two  or  three  places,  and  what 
v/itli  the  excitement  of  the  day,  we  were  too  fatigued  to  give  more  than  a 
glance  and  a  passing  note  of  admiration  to  the  beauty  of  tlie  scene."-  - 
milis. 

Rp:m.  15.  —  A  prono.un  is  frequently  employed  to  represent  a 
sentence  or  phrase ;  as,  "  Josephus  •eceived  a  liberal  education 
among  the  Pharisees,  after  which  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  culti- 
vated his  talents  to  great  advantage."  Which  here  represents  the 
whole  clause,  "  received  a  liberal  education  among  the  Pharisees." 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  tivo  or  more  pronouns,  or  itcntns  andpronouns^ 
of  different  persons  1  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  position 
of  relatives  ?  lUiislrate.  Wliat  besidei  nowas  are  often  empluycd  as  the 
ar.teo  iltMts  of  pronouns  ?     Examples. 


152  SYNTAX. 

Rem.  16.  —  A  pronoun  sometimes  relates  to  an  aJjective  for  its  anteoe 
dent;  but  this  usage  is  inelegant,  and  should  generally  be  avoided.* 

Rem.  17.  —  A  pronoun  sometimes  relates  to  a  verb  for  its  antecedent 
but  this  usage  is  also  objectionable.f 

Rule  VL  —  Pronouns. 

^  220.  When  two  or  more  words,  denoting  different  ob- 
jects, are  taken  conjointly,  forming  one  common  antece- 
dent, the  pronoun  agreeing  with  them  must  be  in  the  plu- 
ral number ;  as,  "  Virtue  and  good  breeding  render  their 
possessor  truly  amiable." 

Rem.  —  When  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  phi- 
ral  pronoun  referring  to  them  should  be  of  the  first  person,  if  either 
of  the  antecedents  is  of  the  first ;  but  if  neither  of  the  antecedents 
is  of  the  first  person,  the  pronoun  should  be  of  the  second  person  ; 
as,  "  James  and  I  have  finished  our  lessons  ; "  —  "  You  and  Henry 
shared  it  between  you." 

Rule  VII.  —  Pronouns. 

§  221.  When  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singular 
are  so  connected  that  the  pronoun  agrees  with  each  term 
separately,  or  with  one  of  them  exclusively,  the  pronoun 
should  be  in  the  singular  number ;  as,  "  Man  is  not  such 
a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  moves  merely  as 
it  is  moved;"  —  "He,  and  no  one  else,  was  allowed  to 
follow  Azs  inclinations;"  —  "Every  good  act  and  every 
good  purpose  will  receive  its  reward." 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  a  pronoun  with  two  or 
more  words  denoting  different  objects  taken  conjointly  ?  Examples. 
What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  a  plural  pronoun  irith  anteccdenti 
of  different  persons  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agree- 
ment of  a  pronoun  with  each  of  two  or  more  antecedents  taken  separate- 
ly, or  with  one  of  them  exclusively  ?     Examples. 

*  "  If  this  enumeration  is  complete,  which,  of  coarse,  we  would  rot  affinr 
it  to  be." — JV.  A.  Review. 

t  "Nor  is  it  less  pleased -nith  its  first  successful  endeavors  to  walk,  oi 
rather  to  run,  whifk  precedes  walking." — Fakjj. 


PliONOUNS. Kl'LE    VJi.  153 

Rem — AYlien  a  singular  and  plural  antecedent  are  joined  by 
the  connective  or  or  vor,  the  pronoun  agreeing  with  them  should 
be  in  the  plural  number ;  as,  "  Neither  he  nor  his  friends  have  In 
terested  themselves  in  this  subject." 

EXERCISES  EST  COMPOSITION. 

§  222.  Write  sentences  containing  examples  which  illustrate  the 
agreement  of  pronouns  with  their  auteeedents ;  —  one  or  more  ex- 
amples of  it,  used  to  represent  a  word  in  the  plural;  —  of  it,  repre- 
sintin(^  a  noun  in  the  tnasculine  or  ft^dnine  ;  —  containing  exam- 
ples of  tcho,  which,  and  that,  correctly  employed;  —  of  whose, 
referring  to  persons ;  —  of  whose,  r&f erring  io  irrational  anhnals, 
and  things  zvi^out  life  ;  —  two  or  viore  pronouns^  or  nour^  and  pro- 
nouns, of  different  persons,  joined  in  the  same  conscruciion ;  — ex- 
amjiles  illustrating  Rule  6th ;  —  a  plural  pronoun  referring  to  ante- 
cedents of  different  jjersons ;  —  exam})le3  illastriDng  B-U-le  7th;  — 
a  pronoun  agreeing  with  a  singular  and  a  jJturoZ  anircedent  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor. 

§  223.    EXERCISES  IX  PAP.cIr'G. 

[The  words  which  are  desisned  to  be  parsed,  ave  print/^d  in  Ilalica. 
The  sentences  following  the  dividing  line,  rcquir:  f,n  application  of  the 
Remarks  and  Observations,  and  may  be  omitted  by  beginners.] 

•  Model 

'^Mis  task  is  accomplislied." 

His  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  is  a  word  used  to  supply  the  place  of  a 
noun ;  — personal,  because  it  expresses  person  and  number  of  itself;  — 
in  the  masculine  gender,  because  it  denotes  a  male  :  —  !r>.  th?  third  per- 
son, because  it  repiesents  a  person  spoken  of;  —  in  ths  singtjiar  num- 
ber, because  it  implies  but  one  object ;  —  in  tlie  possessive  case,  because 
it  denotes  possession.  Koin.  Ae;  Poss.  Aw;  Obj.  A»n;  Ind.  he. —  It  is 
governed  by  task-  The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  nonn  which 
denotes  the  thing  possessed. 

7i.«i  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  used  to  express  the  name  of  an  object  ;--- 
coamon,  because  it  may  be  applied  to  any  one  of  a  whole  class  ;  —  "'ii 
the  reuter  gender,  because  it  denciea  an  object  winch  -s  neither  male 
nor  female ;  —  in  the  third  jiei-son,  because  it  denotes  an  object  spoken 
c,f; — in  the  smgu'sr  number,  beciuss  it  irnplieiJ  bnt  Dre  ;  and  in  thn 
n:.:ninati"i  e  case,  b-icause  it  is  the  eabject  of  ihe  verb  ij  c/:cofn2:lish:^d 
The  cu-jcct  of  a  finite  psrb  must  be  ?.a  the  ?3cni).ns,iiv-3  ease. 


What  is  the  rule  reipecting  apron&iin  agreeing  unth  a  sinmlar  cu^  i  pi'-rai 
<uileccleiit,  ccmicdcd  by  or  or  nor  1     fUxowJcs. 


151  SYNTAX. 

"  The  cars  have  arrive.-i."  —  '•  He  vsho  overcomes  his  passions 
conquers  his  greatest  enemies."  —  "  Venerable  -n^n  !  you  Ua7rf  come 
down  to  us  from  a  farmer  gensratioti."  —  "  Alexajuder  aud  Napo- 
leon were  destroyers  of  their  race."  —  "  Gibbon  the  historian,  was 
an  infidel."  —  "  It  was  neither  he  nor  his  brother,  that  brought  the 
intelligence."  —  "  Our  country  is  ruined,  if  it  becomes  too  prosper- 
ous."— B.  B.  Edwards.  "  There  is  no  service  which  a  man  of  com- 
manding intellect  can  render  his  fellow-creatures,  better  than  that 
of  leaving  behind  him  an  unspotted  example." — Andrews  Norton. 


§  224,  "  AMicther  teachers  are  to  continue  in  the  brighter  ages 
which  prophecy  announces,  is  rendered  doubtful  by  a  very  striking 
prediction  of  the  times  of  the  Messiah." — Channing. 
"  Scenes  must  be  beautiful,  lohich,  daily  viewed, 
Please  daily,  and  wliose  novelty  survives 
Long  knowledge  and  the  scrutiny  of  years ;  — 
Praise  justly  due  to  those  that  /describe." — Cowper. 
"  Edward  the  Confessor's  tomb."  —  "/if  would  be  fi-uitless,  to  in- 
vtstigate  the  peculiarities  of  their  respective  institutions,  which  bear 
a  very  close  affinity  to  one  another." — Prescott.     "  John  Marshall 
was  an  illustrious  judge."  —  "  Marsh,  Capen,  and  Lyon's  publica- 
dons."  —  "  These poi/i/s  being  known,  his  ignorance'oi  other  points, 
hi«  doubts  concerning  other  points,  affect  not  the  certainty  of  hia 
reasoning." — Paley.      "  These   are    different    questions   from   the 
question  of  the  artist's  existence  ;  or,  which  is  the  same,  whether  the 
thing  before  us  be  a  woi-k  of  art  or  not." — lldd.     "  They  had  heard 
of  the  arrival  of  two  independent  coravanies  twenty  days  before."— 
Sparks.     "  No  member  or  members  could  arrogate  to  themselves  the 
exclu.sive  merit." — N.   Y.  Review.     '^  It  is  ■v/\i  icho  Kre  Hamlet," — 

Hazlitt. 

^'- My  friends,  do  they  now  and  then  send 

A  wish  or  a  thought  after  me  f  " — Cowper. 


Rule  Ylil.  —  Adjectives. 
§  225.  Adjcct^.ves   belong  to   the  nouns   or  pronounb 


What  is  the  general  rule  for  adjectives.    Exampics. 


ADJEC'ilVES. RULE    VIII.  155 

which  they  quaiifj  or  define  ;    as,  "  A  good  man  ;  "  — 

"  These  things." 

Rem.  3. —  The  adjectives  tJiis  and  that,  these  and  those,  must 
agree  in  number  v.iih  the  nouns  which  they  define  ;  as,  this  hookj 
these  books ;  that  man,  those  men. 

Rem.  2.  —  When  this  and  that  are  used  in  the  sense  of  former  and 
Uittcr,  kis  and  these  correspond  with  latter,  that  and  those  with  former. 

Examples:  —  "ReUgion  raises  men  above  themselves;  iirehg^on 
sinks  them  beneath  the  brutes ;  —  this  [irreHgion]  binds  them 
down  to  a  pitiable  spccii  of  earth,  tJiat  [religion]  opens  for  them  a 
prospect  to  the  skies." 

"  'J'hen  palaces  and  lofty  domes  arose ;  — 
These  for  devotion,  and  for  pleasure  those." — Po])e. 

Rem.  3.  —  Adjectives  which  imply  unity,  must  be  joined  to 
singular  nouns,  and  those  which  imply  plurality,  to  nouns  in  the 
plui'al ;  as,  one  hour ;  three  days ;  both  houses  ;  all  men. 

Obs.  1. —  The  adjective  eycr^  is  frequently  joined  to  a  plural  noui 
used  collectively  to  denote  one  aggregate  ;  as,  "  Every  ten  years." 

Obs.  2.  —  The  word  all  is  connected  n'ith  singular  nouns  denoting 
quantity,  and  with  plural  nouns  denoting  number;  as,  ^' All  the  corn  was 
consumed  ;  "  —  "^1//  things  pass  away." 

Ous.  3.  —  The  adjective  many  is  sometimes  placed  before  a  singula* 
noun,  the  article  a  or  an  being  inserted  between  them;  as,  "Full  many  a 
gem  of  purest  ray  serene." 

Rem.  4.  —  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  a  phrase  or 

sentence ;  as,  "  To  be   blind  is  calamitous  ; "  — "  That  he  should 

have  refused  the  appointment,  is  extraordinary." 

Rem.  5.  —  An  adjective  is  often  used  to  qualify  a  noun  and 
another  adjective,  taken  as  one  compound  term  ;  as,  "  A  venerable 
old  man  ;  "  — "  The  best  upland  cotton." 

RE.Af .  6.  —  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  modify  the  sense 

of  another  adjective ;  as,  ^'■Red  hot  iron  ;  "  —  "  Five  hundred  men." 

Ki'.M.  7.  —  Either  is  occasionally  employed  by  good  writers  in  the  sense 
of  t'«t7t. 

Exarnples:  —  "  This  merciless  devastation  extended  more  than  two 
leagues  on  eilhir  side  of  the  line  of  march." — Prescott.  "  The 
Sabine  hills  and  the  Albanian  mountains  stretch  on  eitJier  hand." — 
Ircing. 

"  On  CTV//€?i6ide  the  giant  guards  divide." — Southey. 

What  rule  is  obscn-ed  respecting  tlte  number  of  the  adjectives  this  that, 
these,  and  tho.<e  1  Examples.  What  of  adjectives  tvhich  imply  unity  and 
jihtrahty?  Examples.  What  besides  nouns  and  pronouns,  do  adjeftivea 
taiiieli  Dies  qimlij'ij  ?     E.vamples  of  each  cloiis. 


■156  SYNTAX. 

Rem  8.  —  When  an  adjective  is  employed  to  express  a  compari« 
son  between  two  objects  only,  or  objects  of  two  different  classes,  it 
should  generally  take  the  form  of  the  comparative ;  as,  "  Homer 
was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist." — Pope.  "  Our 
brig  was  the  faster  sailer  of  the  tyfo."^Willis.  "  William  is  taller 
than  James;"  —  "William  is  the  taller  of  the  two;"  —  "  Geon^e 
and  John  are  more  studious  than  James  and  Charles." 

Ob3.  —  Sometimes,  however,  the  superlative  form  is  employed  wheu 
only  two  objects  are  compared  ;*  as,  "  Of  the  two,  the  English  system  is 
the  safest^ — Humphrey.  "  The  larrjest  boat  of  the  two  was  cut  roose."— 
Cooper.  "Both  of  these  opinions  have  the  sanction  of  high  authority, 
and  it  may  be  worth  while  to  examine  which  of  them  be  wisest." — N.  A. 
Beview.     •'  I  think  the  English  one  rather  the  best  of  the  two." — Lockhart. 

Rem.  9.  —  When  a  comparison  is  expressed  between  more  than 
two  objects  of  the  same  class,  the  superlative  degree  is  employed; 
as,  "  The  last  of  the  Roman  tribunes ;  "  —  "  The  most  ancient  poet ; " 
—  "  The  noblest  of  the  Greeks." 

Rem.  10.  —  In  the  use  of  comparative  and  superlative  adjectives, 
rare  should  be  taken  not  to  include  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  a  class  to 
Tvhich  it  does  not  belong,  nor  exclude  it  from  a  class  to  which  it 
does  belong.  Thus,  it  would  be  improper  to  say,  "  Socrates  was 
wiser  than  any  Athenian,"  because  Socrates  Avas  himself  an  Athe- 
nian, and  could  not  be  wiser  than  himself.  The  correct  form  would 
be,  "  Socrates  was  wiser  than  any  other  Athenian,"  or  "  Soci-ates 
was  the  wisest  of  the  Athenians."  ■  The  following  sentence  is  also 
erroneous  :  —  "  The  vice  of  covetousness,  of  all  otJiers,  enters  deep- 
est into  the  soul."  Covetousness  is  not  one  of  the  other  vices,  as  the 
construction  of  the  sentence  would  imply.  Corrected :  —  "Of  all 
the  vices,  covetousness  enters  deepest  into  the  soul." 

What  is  the  general  rule  respecting  an  adjective  used  to  express  a  comparison 
between  two  objects,  or  two  classes  of  objects  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  gen- 
eral rule  respecting  an  adjective,  used  to  express  a  comparison,  between  moi-e 
than  two  objects  of  the  same  class.  Examples.  What  care  s/iould  be  oh 
served  in  the  use  of  comparatires  and  superlatives  ? 

*  "  The  strict  rule  laid  clown  by  grammarians,  y^at  tlie  comparative  is  to 
be  used  when  two  things  arc  spoken  of,  and  the  superlative  when  more  than 
two  ore  the  subject  of  discourse,  bus  not  ))ccn  observed,  even  by  the  best 
writers,  and  stiU  less  by  the  best  speakers,  and  need  not  now  be  insisted 
on." — Cannon. 

"  The  superlative  is  often  more  agreeable  to  the  ear ;  nor  is  the  sense  m 
jured.  lu  manv  cases  a  strict  adherence  to  tlie  comparative  form  render* 
the  language  too  stilP  and  formal."— /y«'?;»(>. 

See  also  Angus's  Grammar  and  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rheto:io. 


ADJECTIVES. K  JLE    VIII.  157 

Correct  Examples  .  — "  An  aristocracy  is,  of  all  forms  of  govern- 
ment, tte  most  tenacious  of  life,  and  X^^t  least  flexible  in  its  pur- 
poeefi." — Bancroft.  "  Time  ought,  above  all  other  kinds  of  prop- 
erty, to  be  free  from  invasion." — Johnson.  "  Transcribing  -was,  of 
all  occupations,  that  which  Cowper  disliked  the  most." — Southey. 

False  Syntax :  —  "  The  high  reputation  which  he  afterwards  ob- 
tained, came  too  late  to  gladden  the  heart  which,  of  all  others, 
would  have  most  rejoiced  in  it." — Southey.  "  This  kind  of  wit  ia 
that  which  abounds  in  Cowley,  more  than  in  any  author  that  ever 
wrote."' — Addison.  "  Breathing  with  ease,  is  a  blessing  of  every 
moment ;  yet,  of  all  others,  it  is  that  which  we  possess  with  the 
least  consciousness." — Paley.  "  In  the  age  of  EUzabeth,  England 
was  more  distinguished  for  pati-iotism  than  any  nation  in  civilized 
Europe." — N.  A.  Review. 

Kem.  11.  —  Double  comparatives   and  superlatives,  as  worser, 

most  straitest,  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Obs.  —  The  word  lesser  is,  however,  sometimes  employed  by  gooi^ 
writers  ;  as,  "  The  lesser  incidents." — iV.  Y.  Review.  "  Lessa-  sympathies." 
— Dana.  "Of  lesser  note." — Goldsmith.  "Fifty  lesser  angels." — Prof 
Wilson.     " Z^sser  graces." — Blair.     "Like  /esser  streams." — Coleridge. 

Rem.  12.  —  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  perform  the  office  of  ar 
adverb  ;  as,  "  Soft  sighed  the  flute." — Thomson.  This  usage  is  most]  / 
confined  to  the  poets. 

Rem.  13.  —  An  adjective  maybe  used  to  express  an  attribute  or 

quahty  which  results  from  the  action  of  the  verb  with  which  it  is 

connected.     Adjectives  of  this  description  relate  both  to  the  verb 

and  the  noun  or  pronoun,  and  may  be  called  adverbial  adjectives. 

Examples: — "The  door  was  painted  green."  —  "Heaven  opened 
u-ide  her  evev-during  gates." — Milton.  "  The  exiles  of  a  year  had 
grown  familiar  with  the  favorite  amusement  of  the  Indians." — 
Bancroft.     "  Children  just  let  loose  from  school." —  Goldsmith. 

Rem.  14.  —  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  absolutely,  having  no  direct 
reference  to  any  noun  or  pronoun  expressed  or  implied ;  as,  "  The  desire 
of  being  happy  reigns  in  all  hearts;"  —  "  To  be  wise  and  good  is  to  ba 
^eat  and  noble."     See  Rule  4,  Rem.  2. 

Rem.  15.  —  Xouns  are  sometimes  used  to  perform  the  office  of 

adjectives,  as,  "  A  stone  cistern,"  "  A  gold  watch  ; "  and  adjectives 

to  perform  the  office  of  nouns,  as  "  The  great  and  good  of  all  ages." 

Correct  the  false  syntax,  and  show  why  it  is  false.  What  of  double  com- 
paratives and  superlatives?  What  is  an  adverbial  adjective?  Examples 
Give  examples  of  nouns  used  to  supply  the  place  vf  adjectives  and  adjectives 
used  to  supply  the  place  oj  nouns. 


158  SYNTAX. 

ARTICLES. 

Rem.  16. — The  article  a  ox  an  belon;j;s  to  nouns  of 
the  singular  number  onlj,  or  to  nouns  denoting  a  plurality 
of  objects  in  one  aggregate;  as,  "J.  house;" — '•'' An 
eagle  ;  "  —  '■'■  A  million." 

Rem.  17  —  The  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  either  in 
the  singular  or  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  President ;  "  — 
"  The  Europeans." 

Rem.  18.  —  Articles  are  sometimes  used  to  modify  tlie  sense  of 
other  adjectives;  as,  "  ^ /ew  days;" — "-4  thousand  years;' — 
*'  So  much  the  stronger  proved  he." 

xIem.  19.  —  The  article  the  is  sometimes  used  to  modify  the  sense 

of  an  adverb;  as,  "  T7ie  longer  you  delay,  the  more  your  difficulties 

will  increase." 

Rem.  20.  —  When  the  article  a  or  an  is  plnccd  before  the  words  fiu. 
aiid  Utile,  it  generally  changes  their  meaning  from  negative  to  positive 
Thus,  when  we  say,  "  Tiiere  were  few  persons  present,"  the  word  fnu  is 
used  in  a  negative  sense,  in  distinction  from  iriani/,  to  denote  the  smalhiess 
of  the  number.  But  when  we  say,  "There  were  a  few  persons  present," 
the  word  few  is  used  in  a  positive  sense,  in  distinction  from  none,  to  denote 
that  there  were  some  persons  present.  The  expressions,  "  He  needs  little 
aid,"  and  "  He  needs  a  little  aid,"  serve  also  to  illustrate  this  remark. 

Rem.  21.  —  When  two  nouns  following  a  compai-ative  refer  to  differ- 
ent persons  or  things,  the  article  should  be  repeated  before  the  second 
noun ;  but  when  the  two  nouns  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  the  ar- 
ticle should  not  be  repeated.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  is  a  better  so) 
dicr  than  a  scholar,"  the  terms  soldiei-  and  scholar  relate  properly  to  differ 
ent  individuals,  and  it  is  implied  that  he  is  a  better  soldier  than  a  scholar 
would  be.  But,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  is  a  better  soldier  than  scholai-," 
the  terms  soldier  and  scholar  are  limited  to  one  individual,  and  it  is  im- 
plied that  he  is  better  in  the  capacity  of  a  soldier  thas  in  that  of  a  scholar. 

Rem.  22.  —  When  two  or  more  adjectives  standing  in  connec- 
tion are  used  to  describe  different  objects  of  the  same  name,  the 
article  should  generally  be  placed  before  each  of  them  ;  as,  "  A  red 
and  a  white  flag ; "  that  is,  two  flags,  one  red  and  the  other  white. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  the  article  a  or  an?  Examples. 
Of  the  article  the  ?  Examples.  WJiat  besides  nouns,  do  articles  sometimes 
modify  ?  Examples  of  each  class  What  is  the  general  rule  respecting  the 
article,  when  two  or  more  adjectives  standing  in  connection  describe  different 
objects  of  the  siuiui  tuune  ?     Examj^les. 


ADJECTIVES. — RULE    VIII.  159 

But  wlien  no  ambiguity  is  likely  to  arise  from  the  omission  of  the 
article,  its  repetition  is  not  essential.  Thus  we  may  say  with  equal 
propriety,  "  The  fourteenth  and  the  fitleenth  century,"  or  "  The 
fourteenth  and  Meenth  centuries." 

Kem.  23.  —  When  two  or  more  adjectives  are  used  to  describf 
the  same  object,  the  article  should  generally  be  employed  before  the 
first  only ;  as,  "  A  red  and  white  flag ;  "  that  is,  one  flag,  both  red 
and  white.  But  when  we  wish  to  give  particular  prominence  to 
«ach  adjective,  the  article  may  be  inserted  before  each,  if  no  am- 
biguity would  arise ;  as,  "  The  learned,  the  eloquent,  the  patriotic 
Chatham." 

Rem.  24.  —  A  noun  taken  in  its  widest  and  most  general  sense,  is 

commonly  used  without  an  article ;  as,  "  3fan  is  mortal ; "  —  "  Vice 

is  odious ; "  —  "  Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  the  metals ;  "  —  "  He  was 

called  Master." 

Obs.  —  Sometimes,  however,  the  article  the  is  used  with  a  singular 
noun  to  denote  the  whole  species,  or  an  indefinite  portion  of  the  species  ; 
as,  "  The  horse  is  a  noble  animal." 

Rem.  25.  —  The  article  is  generally  omitted  before  proper  names,  and 
such  other  nouns  as  are  of  themselves  sufficiently  definite  in  their  signifi- 
cation; as,  "George  Washington  Avas  born  in  the  year  1732."  —  "To- 
day is  yesterday  returned."  —  Young.  There  are,  however,  some  cases, 
in  which  the  use  of  the  article  before  proper  names,  is  admissible ;  as, 
"  The  Pyrenees ; "  —  "  The  French ; "  —  "  The  Earth  ; "  —  "  The  illustrious 
Franklin  ;"  —  "A  Mr.  William  Jones  addressed  the  meeting." 

Rem.  26.  —  The  letter  a  is  sometimes  employed  by  mercantile  men  in 
the  sense  of  the  preposition  to;*  as,  "  BaUimore  flour  sold  at  $4.50  a 
$4.58;"  that  is,  "Baltimore  flour  sold  at  prices  varying  from  $i.50  to 
$4.58." 

Obs.  —  A  appears  also  to  have  the  force  of  a  preposition  in  the  follow- 
ing and  other  similar  examples:  —  "He  set  the  public  a  reading."  — 
Blackwood^ s  Magazine.  "  There  is  some  ill  a  brewing."  —  Shalspcare. 
In  such  expressions  as,  "  Thomas  a  Becket,"  "  Thomas  a  Kempis,"  a  is 
employed  in  the  sense  of  the  preposition  of. 

Rem.  27.  —  A  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  mere  expletive  prefix ;  as, 
"  I  begin  to  be  a-iveary  of  thee."  —  Shakspeare.  "  Poor  Tom 's  a-cold."  — 
Ibid. 

What  exception  to  this  ride  ?  Examples.  What  is  the  general  rule  when 
t!VO  or  more  adjectives  describe  the  same  object  ?  Examples.  What  excep- 
tion ?     Examples.     Wltat  of  a  noun  taken  in  its  widest  sense  ?    Examples. 

*  "  This  I  take  to  be  a  relic  of  the  Norman  French,  which  was  once  the 
law  and  mei-cantile  hmguage  of  England ;  for,  in  French,  a,  with  an  accent, 
Ripaus  lo  or  at."  —  Cubittt, 


160  SYNTAX. 

Rem.  28.  —  An  was  formerly  used  as  a  conjunction,  in  t]ie  sense  of  if 
as,  "  Fortune  is  to  be  honored  and  respected,  an  it  be  but  for  her  daugh 
ters,  Coufidence  and  Reputation."  —  Bacon. 


POSITION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Rem.  29.  —  Adjectives  should  be  so  placed  as  to  show  cleaily 
which  nouns  they  are  intended  to  qualify.  Thus,  instead  of  say 
ing,  "  This  disconsolate  soldier's  widow,"  we  should  say,  "  Thia 
soldier's  disconsolate  widow." 

Ob.9.  1.  —  TVTien  an  adjective  is  used  to  qualify  another  adjective 
and  a  noun,  taken  jointly,  it  should  not  be  placed  between  tho 
other  adjective  and  the  noun.  Thus,  in  the  expression,  "  An  ami- 
able young  man,"  the  word  amiable  qualifies  the  phrase  young  man ; 
it  would  therefore  be  improper  to  say,  "  A  young  amiable  man." 

Ous.  2.  —  Tlic  adjective  generally  precedes  the  noun  to  wliicli  it  ba- 
long.s  ;  as,  "  A  patriotic  citizen."  But  in  the  following  cases  the  adjective 
most  commonly  follows  the  noun:  —  1.  When  some  word  or  jjlirase  is 
dependent  on  the  adjective ;  as,  "  The  knowledge  requisite  for  a  states- 
man : "  —  "A  river  twenty  yards  u-ide."  2.  Wlien  the  adjective  i.s  used 
a-satitle:  as,  "Alfred  the  G'reoi;"  —  "  George  the /oi/r^A."  3.  Wlienthe 
quality  expressed  by  the  adjective  is  dependent  on  the  action  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  ;  as,  "  Vanity  often  renders  man  contemptible." 

Obs.  3.  —  When  an  adjective  is  qualified  by  an  adverb  it  is  sometimes 
placed  before  the  noun,  and  sometimes  after  it ;  as,  "  A  very  (/ood  man  ; " 
—  "A  man  conscientiously  exact." 

Obs.  4.  —  When  a  verb  comes  between  an  adjective  and  its  noun,  the 
adjective  may  either  precede  or  follow  the  noun ;  as,  "  Great  is  our  God  ;" 
~  "  Gaming  is  ruirwus." 

"  How  vain  the  ardor  of  the  crowd. 
How  low,  how  little  are  the  proud. 
How  indigent  the  great."  —  Gray. 

Obs.  5.  —  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  noun,  they  m:iv  either 
precede  or  follow  the  noun:  a,s,  "  A  Icam/'d,  irise,  and  ainialile  man."  or 
"A  man  learned,  wise,  and  amiable."  The  longest  adjective  is  usually 
placed  last. 

Obs.  6. — An  adjective  relating  to  a  pronoun  is  generally  i>]aced  after 
the  pronoun  :  as,  "  He  is  faithful  and  kind." 

0i5S.  7.  —  When  a  noun  is  preceded  by  an  article  in  connection  wiih 
one  or  more  otlier  adjectives,  the  article  is  generally  pl.aeed  first ;  ii.s,  "  A 
great  and  good  man."  But  when  the  words  many,  such,  both,  all,  and 
what,  are  employed,  they  generally  precede  the  article:    as,  ^'- Many  a 

What  rule  is  to  be  observed  respecting  the  position  of  adjectives  ?     IlUis 
trate      What  rule  is  to  be  observed  respecting  an  adjective  used  to  gualify, 
unollier  adjcdive  and  a  noun  1     Illustrate. 


ADJECTIVES. — -RULE    VIIT.  101 

day ; "  —  "  Siirk  a  favor  ;  "  —  "  Both  the  trees."  The  article  is  also  plated 
after  adjectives  which  are  modified  by  as,  so,  how,  and  hoLoever ;  as,  "  Hom 
great  a  work." 

Obs.  8. —  Some  grammariaus  object  to  the  use  of  the  nu'merals, 

two,  three,  four,  etc.,  before  the  adjectives  Jirst  and  last.     There 

seems,  however,  to  be  no  good  reason  for  the  objection,*  and  the 

expressions  two  first,  three  last,  etc.,  are  fully  sanctioned  by  good 

usage. 

Examples:  —  "  My  two  last  letters."  —  Addison.  "  The  two  frsl  lines 
are  uncommonly  beautiful." — Blair.  "At  the  two  /««<  schools." 
—  Johnson.  "  The  three  first  generations."  —  E.  Everett.  "  T!ie 
two  first  years."  —  Bancroft.  "The  two  first  day  a."  —  Irving 
"The  two  first  cmiiosP ^- A.  II.  Everett.  "  The  four  first  centu- 
ries." —  Preseott.  "  The  two  last  productions."  —  ^V.  A.  Ih-view. 
"  The  four  first  are  altogether  and  ujiequivocally  poetical."  — 
Cheever.     "  The  three  first  of  his  longer  poems." —  Southcij. 

Obs.  9.  —  The  expressions  _;?rei  three,  last  two,  etc.,  are  also  iu 

good  use,  and,  in  some  cases,  are  to  be  preferred. 

Examples:  —  "The  first  eir/hteen  years."  —  N.  A.  Reriew.  "  T!ie 
history  of  the  world  for  the  last  fiftij  years."  —  E.  Everett.  "  IJur 
ing  the  last  seven  or  eight  years."  —  Brougham. 

What  is  said  of  the  use  of  numerals  before  the  adjectives  first  and  last  7 
Examples.      ]Vhat  other  form  is  also  employed  ?     Examples. 

*  "  It  lias  been  fashionable  of  late  to  write  the  Jirst  three,  and  so  on,  iu- 
Btcad  of  the  three  Jirst.  People  write  in  this  way  to  avoid  the  seeming  ab- 
surdity of  implj-ing  that  more  than  o?ie  thing  can  be  the  Jirst.;  but  it  "is,  at 
least,  equally  absurd  to  talk  about  the  Jirst  Jh/tr,  wlien  (as  oHen  happens) 
there  is  no  second  four."  —  Arnold. 

"Surely,  if  there  can  be  only  ,'o?;e  last,'  '■one  first,'  there  can  be  onlv  'a 
last  one,'  '■•x  first  one.'  I  need  only  observe,  that  usage  is  decidodlj'  in  fa- 
vor of  the  former  phraseology." —  Grant. 

The  following  remarks  respecting  this  qiiestion,  are  extracted  from  a  p.a- 
perread  by  Dr.  Murdock  before  the  Now  Haven  Academy  of  Sciences:  — 

"  The  only  argument  against  the  use  of  two  first,  and  in  favor  of  substi- 
tuting _;?(.<;«<  wo,  so  far  as  1  can  recollect,  is  this.  In  the  nature  of  things, 
there  can  be  only  07ie  first  and  one  last,  in  any  series  of  things.  But  is'  it 
true  that  there  can  never  be  more  than  oite  first  and  one  last  ?  If  it  be  so, 
then  the  adjectives  first  and  last  must  always  be  of  the  singidar  number, 
and  can  never  agree  with  nouns  in  the  plural.  We  are  told  that  the  first 
years  of  a  lawyer's  practice  are  seldom  very  lucrative.  The  poet  tells  us, 
♦hat  his  first  essays  were  severely  handled  by  the  critics,  but  b.is  last  efforts 
hare  been  well  received.  Examjiles  like  these  might  be  produced  wi'tliout 
iiTunber.  They  occur  everywhere  iu  all  our  standard  writers.  *  *  When 
a  numeral  adjective  and  a  qualifying  epithet  both  refer  to  the  same  noun, 
the  general  nde.  o^  the  English  language  is  to  place  the  numeral  first,  then 
the  qualifying  epithet,  and  afterwards  the  noun.  Thus  we  say,  '  the  two 
wise  men,'  '  the  troo  tall  men  ; '  and  not,  '  the  ivise  two  men,'  '  the  tall  turn 
men.'  And  the  same  rule  holds  in  superlatives.  We  say,  'the  two  njisest 
men,'  '  the  two  tallest  men  ; '  and  not  '  the  wisest  ttvo  men,'  '  the  tallest  two 
men.'    Now  if  this  be  admitted  to  be  the  general  rule  of  the  English  laa- 


1G2  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

§  226.  Write  sentences  containing  ex^nples  of  descriptive  anJ 
definitive  adjectives ;  —  containing  an  adjective  that  qualifies  a  sen- 
tence or  jyhrase ;  —  an  adjective  tJiat  qualifies  a  noun  and  another 
adjective,  taken  as  one  compound  term;  —  an  adjective  expressing  a 
comparison  between  two  objects  only;  —  one  expressing  a  compari- 
son between  more  than  two  objects  ;  —  an  adverbial  adjective ;  —  a 
noun  used  to  perform  the  office  of  an  adjective,  and  an  adjectice 
used  to  jierforni  the  office  of  a  noun  ;  —  examples  of  the  articles ;  — 
one  or  more  examijles  illustrating  Rem.  22nd;  —  Ee7n.  23rd;  — 
Rem.  24.th. 

EXEKCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Model. 
§  227.  "7%e  country  abounds  in  excellent  fruit." 

The  is  an  article.  This  title  is  applied  to  the  definite  adjectives  a  or 
an,  nnd  the.  —  It  is  definite,  because  it  indicates  some  particular  ob- 
ject;—  and  belongs  to  country.  Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  or 
pronouns  which  they  qualify  or  define. 

Excellent  is  an  adjective,  because  it  is  joined  to  a  noun  to  qualify  or  de 
fine  its  meaning;  — descriptive,  because  it  expresses  some  quahty  of 
tlie  noun  fruit ;  —  m  the  positive  degree,  because  it  expresses  the 
isim])lc  state  of  the  quality.  Positive,  excellent ;  comparative,  nwre 
excdlent ;  superlative,  most  excellent.  —  It  belongs  to  fruit.  Adjec- 
tives belong  to  the  nouns  or  pronouns  which  they  qualify  or  define. 

"  Wise  men."  —  "A  virtuous  life."  —  "  Rural  scenery  is  always 
interesting."  —  "  Are  these  things  so  ?  "  —  "  The  noblest  spirits  some- 
times grow  up  in  the  obscurest  spheres,"  —  "  3Iore  agreeable  conver- 
sation." —  "  An  able  statesman."  —  "  The  rose  is  sioeet."  —  "  Our 
highest  interests."  —  "  All  hope  was  lost."  —  "  Ti?ne  is  so  swift  of 
foot  that  none  can  overtake  it."  —  "  Modesty  is  one  of  the  greatest 
ornaments  of  youth."  —  "  Our  good  or  bad  fortune  depends  greatlj 
on  the  choice  we  make  of  our  friends." 


§  228.  "Men  grew  old  in  camps,  and  acquired  the  highest  renown 
by  their  warlike  achievements,  without  being  once  required  to  face 
serious  danger."  —  Maeaulay.     "  Any  one  can  conquer  his  passions 

guage,  then  it  follows,  that  generally  we  should  say,  '  the  two  first '  '  the 
two  tast,^  etc.,  rather  than  '  the  Jirsi  tiro,^  the  '  last  two,''  etc.  This  I  say 
Bhonld  generally  be  the  order  of  thp  words.  Yet  there  are  some  cases  in 
whi^  it  seems  preferable  tl  say,  'the  first  iwo,''  '  the  fust  three^  etc." 


VERBS, RULE    IX.  163 

vJho  calls  in  the  aid  of  religion." —  Crabb.  "  Every  nine  days  must 
have  its  wonder,  no  matter  of  what  kind."  ^  Irving.  "  We  havo 
the  rather  availed  ourselves  of  this  testimony  of  a  foreign  critic  in 
behalf  of  Shakspeare,  because  our  own  countryman,  Dr.  Johnson^  has 
not  been  so  favorable  to  him."  —  Hazlitt.  "  I  made  the  greater  pro- 
gress."— Franklin.  "  A  century  is  a.  period  of  a  hundred  years." — 
" "  Rectitude  in  all  its  branches,  is  the  supreme  good."  —  Clianning. 
"  The  purest  clay  is  that  which  burns  white."  —  "  The  door  was  red 
hot."  —  Dickens.  "  That  mind  and  body  often  sympathize,  is  plain." 
—  Jenyns.  "  The  two  last  qualities  are  indeed  so  common  in  all  the 
poetry  of  his  nation,  that  we  need  scarcely  enlarge  upon  the  phrase 
as  belonging  peculiarly  to  him."  —  /.  G.  Lockhart.  "  Without  fru- 
gality none  can  be  rich  ;  and  with  it,  very  fexo  would  be  poor."  — 
Johnson. 

"  Man  often  clouds  with  vain  or  fancied  ills, 

His  narrow  span,  when  Nature's  stainless  hght 

Dispenses  only  happiness,  and  fills 

The  world  with  things  so  beautifid  and  bright. 

Her  plains,  her  mountains,  and  her  valleys  teem 

With  living  verdure  in  the  fairest  dress ; 

And  ocean,  river,  lake,  and  singing  stream. 

Combine  to  harmonize  her  loveliness." — W.  C  Lodge 

Rule  IX.  —  Verbs.  — Agreement. 

§  229.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  num- 
ber and  person ;  as,  ^'1  go  ;  "  —  "  Thou  seest ;  "  —  "  He 
hears." 

False  Syntax  :  —  "  The  singular  admixture  of  serious  faults  which 
call  for  severe  criticism,  with  great  merits  which  excite  our  warmest 
admiration,  render  our  task  one  of  unusud  perplexity." —  West- 
minster Review.  "  He  was  forced  to  account  for  it  by  one  of  the 
most  absurd,  unplillosophical  notions  that  was  ever  started."  —  Ad- 
iison.  "  They  dwelt  with  a  contented  fondness  on  the  scenes  amidst 
which  they  had  been  born  aad  nurtured  with  a  purity  and  exulta- 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  verbs  "*  Examples 
Vdrrecl  the  false  syntax,  and  show  why  it  is  false. 


164  SYNTAX. 

tion  of  feoHng  whicli  powerfully  captivates    the  heart."—   ZV.   A 
lieoiew. 

"A  few  brief  summer  daj-s,  and  thou* 

No  more  amid  these  haunts  shall  glide."  —  Bernard  Bwton. 
"  AVhat  art  thou,  speak,  that  on  designs  unknown, 
"While  others  sleep,  thus  range  the  camp  alone  ?  "  —  Pope, 

Ri;m.  1.  —  When  a  verb  is  placed  between  two  nominatives  of 
dilVcrent  numbers  or  persons,  it  should  generally  be  made  to  agroo 
with  that  which  precedes  it ;  as,  "  His  meat  was  locusts  and  wild 
hont'v  ;  "  —  "  Thou  art  the  man."  But  when  the  verb  is  followed 
by  the  direct  and  principal  subject,  it  should  be  made  to  agree  with 
the  latter  nominative ;  as,  "  'Who  art  thou  V"  —  "  "What  are  we  ?  " 

COLLECTIVE  NOUNS. 

Re-m.  2.  —  The  singiithr  form  of  a  collective  noun,  may  have  a 
verb  agreeing  with  it  either  in  the  singular  or  plural  number ; 
as,  "  The  nation  is  powerful ; "  —  "  The  assembly  were  divided  in 
their  opinions." 

Obs.  —  No  definite   rule  can  be  given  to  decide,  in  all  cases, 

which  number  should  be  employed  to  agree  with  a  collective  noun. 

U'^hen  the  noun  most  naturally  suggests  the  idea  of  unlti/,  the  verb 

should  be  singular ;  but  when  the  noun  conveys  the  idea  of  plurality, 

the  verb  should  be  plural.     In  modern  usage,  the  plural  form  is 

most  frequently  employed. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  transitive  verbs  need  and  xoant  are  sometimes  employed 
in  a  trencral  sense,  without  a  nominative  expressed  or  implied.* 

Examples:  —  "There  needed  a  ncAV  di.'^pensation  of  reiipion  for  the 
moral  reform  of  society." —  Caleb  Citshing.  "  There  ■netf/s  no  better 
picture  of  liis  destitute  and  piteous  situation,  than  that  furnislied 
by  the  homely  pen  of  the  chronicler."  —  Irving.  "Wheresoever 
the  case  of  the  opinions  came  in  agitation,  there  wanted  not  patrons 
to  stand  up  to  plead  for  them."  —  Sparks's  Am.  Biog. 

"  Nor  did  there  iva?it, 
Cornice  or  frieze,  with  bossy  sculptures  graven."  —  Milton. 

Rem.  4.  —  A  verb   in  the  imperative  is  sometimes  used   absoliiteli/, 


What  of  a  verb  placed  between  ttvo  nominatives  of  different  numbers  or  pt^- 
sons  ?  Examples.  What  is  said  respecting  the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  a 
wUcdive  nouni  Examjiles.  How  are  we  to  he  governed  in  deciding  u Inch 
number  should  be  employed  to  agree  ivith  a  collective  noun  ? 

*  See  Webster,  Perley,  and  Ingersoll. 


VERBS. KULE    X.  1G5 

liavinp  no  direct  reference   to  any  particular  subject  expressed  ir  im- 
plied.* 

Examvlfs:  —  "And  God  said,  'Lit  tliere  be  light;'  and  thcie  was 
Uixht."  —  Ge7t.  I  :  3. 
"  '  I  've  lost  a  day,'  —  the  prince  who  nobly  cried, 
Had  been  an  emperor  without  his  crown.  — 
Of  Rome  '?  — sai/,  rather,  lord  of  human  race."  —  Young. 

Rule  X.  —  Verbs.  —  Agreement. 
§  230.  When  two  or  more  <nomiuatives  denoting  differ- 
ent objects  are  taken  conjointly,  forming  one  common  sub- 
ject, the  verb  agreeing  with  them  should  be  in  the  plural 
number ;  as,  "  Socrates  and  Plato  tvere  eminent  philoso- 
phers;  " —  "The  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  teem  with 
delighted  existence." 

False  Syntax  :  —  "  When  the  desire  of  pleasing  and  willingness 
to  be  pleased  is  silently  diminished,  the  renovation  of  friendship  is 
hopeless." — Johnson.  "  The  stamp  and  denomination  still  contin- 
ues, but  the  intrinsic  value  Is  frequently  lost." — Addison. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  two  or  more  nominatives  are  thus  employed,  they 
are  generally  connected  by  the  conjunction  and,  expressed  or  understood. 

Rem.  2.  —  A  singular  nominative  and  an  objective  after  with,  are 
Bomctimes  made  to  form  the  joint  subject  of  a  plural  verb;  as,  "Pha- 
raoh with  all  bis  host,  were  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea."  This  copulative 
use  of  loith  is  occasionally  adopted  by  good  writers  ;  but  it  would  be  bet- 
ter, in  most  cases,  either  "to  put  and  in  the  place  of  icith  or  to  employ  the 
singular  form  of  the  verb.f  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  This  noble  ship 
with  her  gallant  crew  were  buried  beneath  the  waves,"  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  say,  "  Tliis  noble  ship  and  her  gallant  crew  were  buried  beneath 
the  waves."     So  also,  "  This  brave  officer  with  a  company  of  only  fifty 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  two  or  more 
nominatives  denoting  different  objects,  taken  conjointly  1  Examples. 
Correct  the  false  syntax,  and  show  uhy  it  is  false. 

*  See  Frazee,  Allen  and  ComweJl,  Nutting,  Lynde,  and  Chapin. 

t  The  use  of  a  plural  verb  to  agree  with  a  singular  nominative  and  an 
jbjective  after  viih,  is  sanctioned  by  Priestley,  Grant,  Milliean,  Cobbctt, 
Lewis,  Hendrick,  I.enuie,  Hort,  Tel  ]\Iar,  and  Simmonite  ;  and  condemned 
by  G.  Brown,  Murray,  Sanborn,  Kirkham,  Picket,  Hiley,  Weiliin,  Higgin 
son   Hazlitt,  and  Latliar  . 

"This  phraseology,  thcugh  not  strictly  consonant  with  the  rules  of  con 
cord,  frcquciUly  obtains,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  languages.     In  some 
cases  indeed  it  seems  preferable  to  the  syntactical  form  of  expression.  ' — 
7)r.  Crombie 


106  SYNTAX. 

men,  have  succeeded  in  quelling  the  insurrection,"  would  be  better  ex- 
pressed by  saying,  '"  Tiiis  brave  officer,  with  a  company  of  only  fifty  men, 
has  succeeded  in  quelling  the  insurrection." 

Examples :  — '■  This  princii)le,  with  others  of  the  same  kind,  suppoups 
man  to  act  from  a  brute  impulse." — Johnson.  "  He  himself,  with 
others,  was  taL-en." — Bancroft.  "  A  body  of  two  thousand  men 
succeeded  in  surprising  the  quarters  of  the  marquis  of  Cadiz,  who, 
with  his  followers,  ivas  exhausted  by  iatigue  and  w-atching." — 
Prescott. 

Kem.  3.  —  When  two  or  more  sinG^ular  nominatives  denoting  the 

saine  object  are  taken  conjointly-,  the  verb  agreeing  with  them  must 

be  singulai" ;  as,  "  This  renowned  Datriot  and  statesman  has  retired 

to  priy&te  life." 

Rule  XI.  —  Yerbs.  —  Agreement. 

§  231.  When  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  are  so 
connected  that  the  verb  agrees  with  each  subject  sepa- 
rately, or  with  one  of  them  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others, 
the  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  number. 

.Examples:  —  "Duty,  and  not  interest,  iv<is  his  constant  lule  of  ac- 
tion ; "  —  "  Nor  cloud,  nor  speck,  nor  stain,  breaks  the  serene  of 
heaven;" — " Neither  Astrology,  nor  A]chemy  deserves  the  name 
of  a  science  , "  —  "  In  every  tribe,  superstition,  or  gratitude,  or  for- 
tune, has  exalted  a  particular  family  ;  "  —  "  Ca;sar,  as  well  as  Cicero, 
vxis  remarkable  for  his  eloquence  ;  "  —  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom, 
and  the  power,  and  the  glory." 

"  Every  tongue  and  every  eye 
Does  homage  to  the  passer  by." 

False  Syntax  :  —  "  Neither  romantic  fancy,  nor  extreme  pathos, 
nor  sublimity  of  the  very  first  order,  are  discoverable  in  Pope." — Ed- 
inburgh Review.  "  The  most  trifling  occasion,  a  transient  scarcity  of 
flesh  or  lentils,  the  neglect  of  an  accustomed  salutation,  a  mistake 
of  precedency  in  the  public  baths,  or  even  a  religious  dis|iute,  were 
at  any  time  sufficient  to  kindle  a  sedition." — Gibbon. 
"  Danger,  long  travel,  want,  or  woe, 
Soon  change  the  form  that  best  we  know." — Scott. 

When  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  denoting  the  same  object,  are  taken 
conjointhj,  in  what  number  must  the  verb  be  ?  Examples.  What  is  Iha  rule 
respecting  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  so  connected  that  the  verb 
agrees  with  each  separately,  or  with  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others  "^ 
Examples.     Correct  the  false  syntax,  and  shoiv  irhy  it  is/cJsi\. 


VKRBS. Rt'LE    XI.  10  7 

Rem.  1.— -"V^^lA  a  singular  and  a  plural  nominative  are  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  should  generally  be  in  the  plural ; 
and,  Avhen  the  harmony  of  the  sentence  admits  of  it,  the  plural 
nominative  should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Neither  pov- 
erty nor  riches  were  Injurious  to  him." 

K.EM.  2.  —  "When  two  or  more  nominrttives  of  different  persons 
are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  is  often  made  to  agree  with 
the  nearest  nominative  ;  as,  "  Either  you  or  I  am  in  tault."  But  it 
would  generally  be  better  to  express  the  verb  in  connection  Avith 
each  nominative,  unless  the  dltferent  persons  of  the  verb  agree  In 
form ;  as,  "  Either  you  are  In  fault,  or  I  am." 

EXERCISES  IN  COIVIPOSITION. 
§  232.  Write  exercises  containing  a  verb  that  agrees  with  a  sin- 
gular nominative  ;  —  a  plural  nominative  ;  —  a  nominative  in  the 
first  person  ;  —  one  in  the  second  ;  —  one  in  the  third  ;  —  a  verb 
agreeing  with  a  collective  noun :  —  a  Aerb  aoreelng  with  two  or 
more  nominatives  denoting  different  objects  taken  conjointly  ;  -^ 
several  different  examples,  Illustrating  Rule  11th;  —  a  verb  agree- 
ing loith  a  singular  and  a  plural  nomlnatice,  connected  by  or  or 
nor  ;  —  a  verb  agreeing  tvilh  two  or  more  nominatives  of  different 
persons. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Model. 
§  233.  "  I  saw  the  sun  sinking  behind  the  hills." 

Saw  is  a  verb,  because  it  expresses  an  asseition  or  affirmation : —  in-eg- 
ular,  because  it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  hj 
adding  d  or  ed  to  tlie  present;  — see,  saw,  seen;  —  it  is  a  transitive' verb, 
in  the  active  voice,  because  it  governs  the  object  sim;  —  in  the  indica- 
tiA'e  mode,  because  it  expresses  a  declaration;  —  in  the  past  tense,  lie- 
cause  it  denotes  indefinite  past  time ;  —  in  the  first  person  singular,  to 
agree  with  its  nominative  /.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in 
number  and  person. 

Siiikinci  is  a  j^articiple,  because  it  is  a  mode  of  the  verb  which  partakes 
of  the  properties  of  the  verb  and  the  adjective; — si7ik,  siaik,  sitttk ;  — 
imperfect,  because  it  denotes  the  continuance  of  the  action  ; — intransi- 
tive, because  it  does  not  have  a  noun  or  pronoun  for  its  object ; —  and 
belongs  to  sun.    Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  a  singular  and  a  plural  nominative,  connected 
by  or  or  nor  ?  Exainphs.  Respecting  tivo  or  more  nominatives  of  diffe.rent 
persons,  connected  by  or  or  nor  ?     E.ramphs. 


108  SYNTAX. 

"  I  will  obey:'  —  "  He  has  returned."  —  "  It  i^tost."  —  "  Strive  lo 
improve."  —  '■'■The  multitude  2nirsue  pleasure."  —  '■^  Time  and  tide 
wail  for  no  man."  —  "  The  intellect,  and  not  tlie  heart  is  concerned." 
—  "  Neither  the  time  nor  the  place  was  htown."  —  "  The  ongin  of 
the  city  and  state  of  Rome  is  involved  in  great  uncertainty." 

§  234.  "  In  civilized  life,  where  the  happiness,  and  indeed  almost 
the  existence  of  man,  depends  so  much  upon  the  opinion  of  his  fel- 
low men,  he  is  constantly  acting  a  studied  part." — Irving.  "  Thai 
^reat  critic  and  philosopher  endeavors  to  palliate  this  imperfection 
jn  the  Greek  poet." — Addison.  "  This,  and  this  alone,  constitutes 
(he  worth  and  importance  of  the  sacrifice." — Channing.  "  A  shady 
grove,  a  green  pasture,  a  stream  of  fresh  water,  are  sufficient  to  at- 
tract a  colo?ig  of  sedentary  Arabs." —  Gibbon.  ^'■Africa,  as  well  as 
Gaul,  was  gra.dua\W  fashioned  to  the  imitation  of  the  capital." — Ibid. 
"Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  thcnr  banners,  at  sunset  loere  seen." — Byron. 

'^  The  almost  unobserved  advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledo-e 
were  paving  the  way  for  discoveries." — Mackintosh.  "The  iron,  us 
well  as  the  wood,  was  taken  from  the  wreck  of  the  same  ship." — 
Southey.  "  It  has  been  frequently  observed  by  writers  on  physiog- 
nomy, that  every  emotion  and  every  operation  of  the  mind  has  a 
corresponding  expression  of  the  couiitenance." — Dugakl  Stewart. 

Rule  XII.  —  Verbs.  —  Government. 

§  235.  Transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
"I  have  heard  him;^'  —  ^^ Honor  ihj  father  and  thj 
mother.'' 

Rem.  1.  —  A  verb  in  the  infinitive,  a  sentence,  or  a  phrase,  often  sup- 
plies the  place  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  You  see 
how  few  of  these  men  have  returned." 

Reji.  2.  —  An  Intransitive  verb  may  be  ugpd  to  govern  an  ob- 

jectlve,  when  the  verb  and  the  noun  depending  upon  It  are  of 

kindred  signification ;  as,  "  To  live  a  blameless  life  ;  "  —  "  To  run  a 

race." 

"What  is  the  rule  respecting  transitive  verbs  ?  Examples.  What  of  an 
xntransitice  verb  followed  hy  a  noun  of  kindred  signifcalion  ?     Examples^ 


VKUDS. RULE    XII.  169 

Obs. —  Idiomatic  expressions  sometimes  occur  in  which  intransitive 
verbs  are  followed  by  objectives  dejiending  upon  th'.Tn  ;  as.  "  Perhaps  we 
have  wanted  the  spiiit,  and  manliness,  to  look  the  saijert  fully  in  the  face." 

—  Channing.     "They  lauf/hed  Mm  to  scorn." — Mat. 'J:  24.      "  We  have 
stopped  a  moment  to  breathe  our  horses." — LbnriftUcio. 

"  The  broken  soldier,  kindly  bid  to  stay. 
Sat  by  the  fire,  and  tdk'd  the  niyht  away." — Goldsmith. 

Rem.  3.  —  Transitive  verbs  of  asking,  giving,  teaching,  and  some 

oihers,  are  often  employed  to  govern  two  objectives  ;*  as,  "  Ask 

him  his  opinion."  —  "  This  experience  taught  me  a  valuable  lesson." 

—  "  Spare  me  yet  this  bitter  cup." — Hemans.     "  I  tluice  presented 
him  a  kingly  crown." — Shakspeare. 

Rem.  4.  —  Verbs  of  asJdng,  giving,  teaching,  and  some  otters, 
are  often  employed  in  the  passive  voice  to  govern  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun in  the  objective. 

Examples :  —  "  He  teas  asked  his  opinion." — Johnson.  "  The  pupil,  in 
more  advanced  life,  /s  taught  the  science  in  its  strictly  logical  form." 
— ^V.  A.  Rei-iew.  "  He  icas  denied  admission  to  the  most  important 
pul)l)c  repositories." — Prescott.  "  He  had  been  refused  shelter." — 
IiTtng.  '■  They  were  denied  the  indulgence." — Macaulay.  "  They 
have  been  denied  every  ennobling:  institution." — Channing.  "Am  I 
to  be  asked  such  a  question  ?  " — Cooper. 
Obs.  —  This  form  of  expression  is  anomalous,  and  might,  in  many 
cases,  be  improvcd.t     Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  He  was  offered  a  seat 

Transitive  verbs  of  asking,  teaching,  etc.  ■?  Examples.  How  are  verbs  of 
asking,  teaching,  etc.,  often  employed  in  the  passive  voice  ?     Examples. 

*  Many  ^ammarians  supply  a  preposition  to  govern  one  of  the  objectives 
following  this  class  of  verbs,  but  such  a  mode  of  parsing  is,  in  many  cases, 
arbitrary',  and  does  violence  to  an  important  and  well  established  idiom  of 
the  langnase.  In  the  expressions,  "  Teach  them  to  obey  the  laws,"  and 
"  Teach  them  obedience  to  the  laws,"  it  is  manifest  that  the  grammatical 
influence  of  the  verb  teach  upon  the  pronoun  tliem^  is  the  same  in  both  ex- 
amples. Why  then  parse  the  word  them  a.«  governed  by  the  verb  in  one 
example,  and  in  the  other  by  a  preposition  xinderstood  ? 

The  rule  for  the  government  of  two  objectives  by  a  verb,  without  the  aid 
of  a  preposition,  is  adopted  by  Webster,  Weld,  "Alexander,  Frazee,  Nut- 
ting, Perley,  Goldsbun"-,  J.  M.  Putnam.  Hamlin,  Flower,  Crane,  Brace, 
Greenleaf,  C.  Alexander,  Burr,  Cornell,  Cutler,  Fowler,  and  many  others. 

t  G.  Brown,  Sanborn,  Hurray,  Wright,  and  several  other  grammarians 
condemn  this  usage  altogether  ;  whiie,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  still  larger  class  of  authors,  including  Dr.  Crombie,  Flower, 
D'Orsey,  Crane,  Frazee,  R.  C.  Smith.  Emmons.  Ffamiin.  Lennie.  Hendrick, 
Ainsworth,  Arnold,  Greene,  Weld,  Fowler,  and  Nutting. 

"  Examples  of  the  application  of  this  rule  are  furnished  by  the  best  wri- 
ters. Phrases  such  as  these,  —  'She  was  asked  the  question,'  'She  was 
taught  her  lesson,'  '  They  were  offered  a  pardon,'  '  They  were  denied  their 
request,'  etc.,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  and  it  seems  better,  after  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Latin,  to  provide  for  them  by  a  special  rule,  than  to  condemn 
them  as  inaccuracies." — J"'>n/"'s  Murray. 

8 


110  SYNTAX. 

in  the  council,"'  it  would  be  preferable  to  say,  "  A  seat  in  the  council  waa 
offered  [to]  liim." 

Eem.  5.  —  The  passive  voice  of  a  verb  is  sometimes  used  in  connec- 
tion with  a  preposition,  forming  a  compound  passive  verb. 

Examples :  —  "  lie  teas  listened  to  without  a  raurn.ur." — A.  H.  Everett 
"Nor  is  this  enterprise  to  he  scoffed  at  J' — Charming.  "This  is  b 
tendency  to  be  guarded  against." — Palcy.  "  A  bitter  persecution 
vxis  carried  on." — Hallam. 

Eem.  6.  —  Idiomatic  expressions  sometimes  occur  in  which  a  noun  ir 
the  objective  is  iireccded  by  a  passive  verb,  aiid  followed  by  a  prepcei 
tiou  used  adverbially. 

Exampks :  —  "  Vocal  and  instrumental  music  icere  made  use  of:* — 
Addison.     "  The  third,  fourth,  and  fifth,  icere  taken  possession  of  at 
half  past  c\ghl."^-Southey.     "The  F'mta  was  soon  lost  sigM  cf  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night." — Irving.     "  It  ought  never  to  be  lost 
sight  of' — N.  A.  Review. 
Obb.  —  Tliis  idiom  is  anomalous;  but  it  lias   the   sanction  of  many 
good  writers,  and  is  therefore  shielded  from  the  unqualified  condemna- 
tion of  the  critic.     It  would,  however,  generally  be  better  to  avoid  it. 

Rem.  7.  —  There  are  some  verbs  which  maybe  used  either  transitively 
oi"  intransitively ;  as,  "  He  mil  return  in  a  few  davs  ; "  ''  He  will  return  the 
louk ; "—  '•  The  wind  blows  violently ;  "  "  The  wind  blotvs  the  chajf." 

Rem.  8.  —  Tlie  verb  Zearw  is  often  improjierly  used  for  teach;  as,  "  It 
is  of  little  utility  to  learn  scholars  that  certain  wcitls  are  signs  of  certain 
modes  and  tenses."     Insert  teach  iu  the  place  of  learn. 

Rem.  9.  —  The  verbs  lai/  and  set  should  not  be  ;onfoundcd  with 
lie  and  sit.  Lay  is  properly  transitive ;  lie,  intransitive.  Set,  is 
either  transitive  or  intransitive ;  sit,  always  intransitive.  See  the 
principal  parts  of  these  verbs,  in  the  list  of  irregular  vei-bs,  p}\ 
96,  1)7. 

Correct  Examples :  —  "  He  fjisted  and  lay  in  sackcloth."  — 
1  Kings  21:  27.  "He  laid  his  robe  from  him." — Jonah  3:  6. 
"  I  have  sat  for  hours  at  my  window." — hinng.  "  Thou  hast  set  a 
bound  that  they  may  not  pass  over." — Ps.  104:  9.  "  They  have 
forsaken  my  law  which  I  set  before  them." — Jer.  9:13.  "  We  say, 
a  thing  lies  by  us  until  we  bring  it  into  use;  we  lay  it  by  for  some 
future  purpose  ;  we  lie  down  in  order  to  repose  om-selves ;  we  lai^ 
money  down  by  way  of  deposit." — Crahh. 

False  Syntax  :  —  "  My  old  friend  sat  himself  down  iu  the  chair-'» 
— Addison.  "  The  mate  of  a  Briti.sh  vessel  then  laying  at  anchor 
in  Boston  harbor." — Sparks's  Am.  Biug. 

What  of  the  verbs  lay  a?id  set  ^  Correct  the  false  syntax,  and  show  whj 
ii  is  false. 


VERBS. RULE    Xll.  iTl 

"  Even  now,  -where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend, 
I  sit  me  down  a  pensive  Lour  to  spend." — Goldsmith. 

"  For  him  through  hostile  camps  I  bend  my  -wav, 
For  him  thus  prostrate  at  thy  feet  I  lay." — Pope. 

Rem.  10. — A  verb  in  the  infinitive  is  often  preceded  by  a  noun  ok 
pronoun  in  the  objective,  which  has  no  direct  dependence  on  any  other 
word.* 

Examples:  —  "  One  error  is  that  of  concluding  the  things  in  question 
to  be  alike." —  Whateky.     "  Columbus  ordered  a  strong /(Wtrc^s  of 
wood  and  plaster  to  be  erected."  —  Irving.     "  Its  favors  here  should 
make  us  tremble."  —  Young. 
Rem.  11.  —  Idiomatic  expressions  sometimes  occur,  in  which  the  ac- 
tive form  of  a  transitive  verb  is  used  in  a  sense  nearly  allied  to  the 
passive  ;  as,  "  The  goods  sell  rapidly  ; "  _  "  The  cloth  tears  ;  "  — "  Mahog- 
any planes  smooth  ; "  —  "  These  lines  read  well." 

Rem.  12.  —  The  Imperfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  Is  some- 
times employed  in  a  passive  sense.f 

Examples :  — "  The  spot  where  this  new  and  strange  tragedy  was 
acting." — E  Everett.     "An  attempt  is  making  in  the  English  Par- 
liament to  provide  by  law  for  the   education   of  the  poor."  — 
Daniel   Webster.      "The  fortress  was  building." — Irving.      "We 
must  pass  to  a  rapid  notice  of  the  magniticeut  church,  now  erecting 
in  the  city  of  New  York." — N.  A.  Review.     "While  this  necessary 
movement  was  making.''''. —  Cooper.      "While  these  things  were 
transacting  in  England." — Bancroft. 


What  peculiar  use  is  sometimes  made  of  the  impeifect  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb  f     Examples. 

*  "  The  infinitive  has  sometimes  a  subject  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  '  I 
believe  Mm  to  be  an  honest  man  ;' — '  He  commanded  the  horiie  to  be  sad- 
dled;'—'  I  confess  w^i^-// to  be  in  fault;'— 'Let  Mm  be  punished.'  Ilim, 
in  the  first  sentence  quoted,  is  not  the  object  of  the  verb  believe,  but  the 
subject  of  to  be.  In  the  second  sentence,  Jwrse  is  not  the  object  of  c^mmiand  ; 
■ — it  is  not  meaut  that  a  command  was  given  to  the  horse.'' — B idler. 

"  The  agent  to  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  must  be  in  the  objective 
case." — Nutt'ing.    . 

See  also  Nixon's  English  Parser. 

•*  Difl'erent  opinions  have  long  existed  among  critics  respecting  this  pas 
sive  use  of  the  imperfect  participle.     Many  respectable  writers  substitute 
the  compound  passive  participle  ;    as,  "  The  liouse  is  be'ing  built ; "    "  The 
book  is  being  jn-iiiled:'     But  the  prevailing  practice  of  the  best  authors  is 
in  favor  of  the  simple  form  ;  as,  "  The  house  is  buikling." 

"The  propriety  of  these  imperfect  passive  tenses  has  been  doubted  by 
almost  all  our  graanmarians ;  though  1  believe  but  few  of  them  have  written 
many  pao-es  without  coudescendina;  to  make  use  of  them.  Dr.  Beattiesays, 
'One  of  the  sreatest  defects  of  the'^English  tongue,  with  regard  to  the  verb, 
seems  to  be  the  want  of  an  imperfect  passive  participle.'  And  yet  he  uses 
the  imperfect  participle  in  a  passive  sense  as  often  as  most  writers. " — 
Pickboimi's  Dissertation  on  the  English  Verb. 

"  Several  other  expressions  of  this  sort  now  and  then  occur,  such  as  the 


1^72  SYNTAX. 

EuLE  XIII. — Predicate  Nominative. 

§  236.  Intransitive  and  passive  verbs  have  the  sarne 
case  after  them  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to 
the  same  person  or  thing;  as,  ^'■Society  is  the  true  sj)here 
of  human  virtue;" — "They  wished  him  to  be  their 
king  f — '•'■He  soon  became  the  leader  oi  his  party;" — 
'^i/e  was  chosen  librarian  f — "iiib^ner  has  been  styled 
the  2^rince  of  poets." 

Rem.  1. — In  some  instances  the  words  so  agreeing  in  case  are  both 
placed  either  before  or  after  the  verb;  as,  "Are  they  friends  V — ''Friends 
they  cannot  be." 

Reii.  2. — When  the  nominative  after  a  verb  forms  a  part  of  the  predi- 
cate, it  is  called  the  predicate  nominative.  The  nominative  employed  as 
t).6  subject  of  a  verb,  is  called  the  subject  nominative. 

Rule  XIV.  —  Government  of  the  Infinitive. 

&  237.  The  infinitive  mode  may  be  governed  by  a  verb, 

a  noun,  or  an  adjective;*  as, ''■'■  Strive  to  imi^rove ;""  — 

"I  am  m  haste  to  return;''  —  "The  ship  was  ready  to 

sail." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  infinitive  is  often  governed  by  than  or  as.  The 
following  are  examples  :  —  "  An  object  so  high  as  to  be  invisible ;" 

What  is  the  rule  respecting  the  same  case  ?  Examples.  Respecting 
the  government  of  the  infinitive?  Examples.  Wluit  conjunctions  are 
frequently  employed  to  govern  the  infinitive  ?     Examples. 

new-faneled  and  most  uncouth  solecism,  '  is  being  done,'  for  the  good  old 
English  idiomatic  expression  is  doins,'  —  an  absurd  periphrasis,  driving  out 
a  pointed  and  pithy  turn  of  the  English  language."— iV.  A.  Revieiv. 

*  Several  respectable  graminarians  treat  the  infinitive  particle  to  as  a 
preposition,  governing  the  verb.  See  Comly,  G.  Brown,  Bell,  Snyder,  and 
Fowle. 

"  If  to  is  here  a  preposition,  it  differs  at  least  m  one  respect,  f  rorn  every 
other  Englisla  prei)Osition,  and  from  the  same  word  in  other  situations,  in 
giving  entire  generality  to  the  verb,  —  an  effect  which  no  preposition,  as 
such,"^  ever  has,  either  on  the  verb,  or  any  other  part  of  speech.  That  it 
should  assume  this  pecnliarity  in  this  particular  connection  only,  is  remark 
able  ;  and  that  it  should  do  this  and  at  the  same  time  retain  the  usual  pro 
perties  of  a  preposition,  seems  very  improbable."  —  Everest. 


TENSES. RULE    XV.  1V3 

~-  "  It  la  sometimes  better  to  submit  to  injustice,  than  to  resort  ta 
judi<;x3J  pj'ocee dings." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  governed  by  an  adverb;  as, 
"  The  shipmen  were  about  to/tee." 

Kem.  3.  —  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  governed  by  a  phrase  or  a  sen- 
tence ;  as,  "  loo  ncahj  ever  to  have  leisure  for  attempting  to  execute  an_\r 
great  and  wortliy  dcstgn."  —  Southcy. 

"  Jn  age,  in  infancy, _/)w?i  others]  aid 
Is  all  our  hope,  to  teach  us  to  be  kind."  —  Young. 

liKM.  4.  —  The  iiifinitive  is  sometimes  used  absolutely,  having  no 
dependence  on  any  other  word  ;  as,  "It  was,  so  to  speak,  a  branch 
of  the  Executive  Power."  —  N.  Y.  Review. 

Rem.  5. —  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  usually  relates  to  some  noun 
or  proi.oun.*  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  desires  to  improve,"  the 
verb  to  improve  relates  to  the  pronoun  he  while  it  is  governed  by 
desires. 

Eem.  6. — When  the  mfinitive  follows  the  active  voice 

of    the  verbs  bid.,  dare,  feel,  see,  let,  make,  need,   and 

'hear,    the  sign   to  is   usually  omitted;    as,  ^^1  felt  my 

strength  return  ;  "  -^  "  Nothing  need  be  said  ;  "  —  "  We 

heard  the  thunder  roll ;  "  —  "  Pride  guides  his  steps,  and 

bids  hiin  shun  the  great." 

Kem.  7.  —  The  sign  of  the  infinitive  is  also  omitted,  in  some  instances, 
After  the  verbs  hare,  behold,  perceive,  know,  and  help;  as,  "  Would  they  Aa!7e 
us  reject  such  an  offer  1 " 

Rule  XV.  —  Tenses. 
§  238.  In  the  vise  of  verbs,  those  tenses  should  be  em- 
ployed wliich  express  correctly  the  sense  intended. 

What  of  infinitives  having  no  dependence  on  other  ivords  ?  Examples.  To 
what  do  infinitives  relate  ?  Examples.  After  what  verbs  is  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  usually  omitted  ?  Examples.  Give  the  rule  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  tenses.     Illustrate  its  application. 

*  Some  teachers  pav  little  attention  to  the  ^ofer7;.?«i?7i<  of  the  infinitive, 
wliile  thev  .lirect  their'pupils  to  point  out  in  all  cases  the  noun  or  pronoun  to 
which  it  retaU?.  Others  require  their  pupils  to  designate  both  government 
and  rehitioii.     See  Sanborn's  Grammar,  p.  144. 

"An  infinitive  refers  to  the  noun  ^vllich  is  the  agent  or  subject  of  the 
action  exi)ressed  bv  the  iiifiiiitive.  The  reference  is  precisely  of  the  same 
nature  as  that  of  a  oarticiple  to  its  substantive,  or  of  a  finite  verb  to  its 
nominative."  —  Furl,  urst. 


174  VERES. 

Rkm  i.  —  This  rile  is  somewh.u  indefinite,  but  wlien  taken  in 
connection  with  the  definitions  and  illustrations  of'ihe  tenses  oriven 
under  Etymology,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  a  sufficient  guide  to  die 
learner.  It  is  violated  in  the  following  example  :  —  "I  exrected  fo 
hane  seen  you."  The  verb  to  have  seen  cannot  here  relate  to  a  L'lne 
prior  to  that  denoted  by  the  verb  expected.  It  should  not  thercforo 
bo  in  the  past  perfect  tense.  Corrected :  —  "I  expected  to  see 
yon." 

Fahe  Syntax  : —  "  When  I  was  in  France,  I  have  often  observed, 
that  a  great  man  has  grown  so  insensibly  heated  by  the  court  which 
was  paid  him  on  all  sides,  that  he  has  been  quite  distracted." — Steele. 
"  Columbus  had  fondly  hoped,  at  one  time,  to  have  rendered  the 
natives  civilized,  industrious,  and  tributary  subjects  of  the  crown." — 
Irving.  "  As  Dr.  Wallis  hath  long  ago  observed."  —  Lowth.  "  They 
continue  with  me  now  three  days."  —  Malt.  15  :  32. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  present  tense  is  often  employed  in  expressions 

that  relate  to  the  future  ;  as,  "  The  world  to  come  ;  "  —  "  He  leaves 

in  half  an  hour  ;  "  —  "I  am  about  to  write." 

Obs.  —  When  a  finite  verb  in  the  present  tense,  occurs  in  a  sentence 
denoting  futurity,  it  is  generally  preceded  by  before,  as  soon  as,  when,  till,  or 
after;  or  accompanied  by  an  adverb  or  modifying  phrase  denoting  future 
time;  as,  "  When  the  mail  arrives,  the  letters  will  be  delivered;"  — 
"  Bold  you  the  watch  to-night  ?  "  "  We  do  my  lord  ;  "  — '■  Ring  the  bell,  rd 
a  quarter  before  eight." 

Rem.  3.  —  When  the  infinitive  present  is  connected  with  another 

verb,  it  generally  relates  to  the  same  time  as  the  verb  with  which  it 

is  joined ;  as,  "  He  began  to  write ; "  —  "  He  "svill  begin  to  write." 

In  the  first  of  these  examples  to  write  corresponds  in  time  with 

began,  and  is  therefore  past  in  respect  to  the  time  of  speaking.     In 

the  other  example,  it  relates  to  the  same  time  that  is  expressed  by 

will  begin. 

.  Obs. —  Sometimes,  however,  the  infinitive  denotes  time  subsequent 
to  that  expressed  by  the  verb  with  which  it  is  connected  ;  as,  "  He  is  to 
engage  in  teaching  ;  "  — "  JEneas  went  in  search  of  an  empire  which  xcoi 
one  day  to  command  the  world." 

Rem.  4.  —  In  animated  narrations,  the  present  tense  is  occasionally 
used  for  the  past ;  as,  "  After  the  lapse  of  eight  precious  days,  they  again 

Correct  the  false  syntax,  and  shoiv  tchy  it  is  false.  Give  examples  of  verbs 
in  the  present  tense,  used  in  expressions  that  relate  to  the  futurL  What  of  the 
in/initive  present,  used  in  connection  with  other  verbs  ?     Illustrate. 


TENSES.-^RULE    XV.  1Y5 

tof'itih  anclior  ;  tlie  coast  of  Eng-land  recedes ;  already  they  are  nnfiirling 
llieir  sails  on  the  hioad  ocean,  when  the  captain  of  the  Speedwell,  with  his 
company,  dismayed  at  thfi  dangers  of  the  enterpiize,  once  more  pmtends 
that  his  ship  is  too  weak  for  the  service."  —  Bancroft.. 

T\EM.  5.  —  The  future  tense  is  frequently  employed  for  the  future  per- 
fect ;  as,  '•  I  shall  Jinish  my  letter  before  the  mail  closes." 

Eem.  6.  —  When  a  verb  in  the  present  perfect  tense  is  preceded  by 
before^  as  soon  as,  when,  till,  or  after,  it  usually  performs  the  office  of  the 
future  perfect;  as,  "  When  he  has  Jinished  his  engagement,  ke  shall  be 
rewai:dcd." 

Rem.  7.  —  The  hypothetical  form  of  the  verb  to  be  is  used  to  express 
either  present  or  indctinite  time;  as,  "If  he  were  present,  he  would  con- 
vince you  of  your  error.''     See  p.  84. 

Obs.  —  The  past  subjunctive  of  other  verbs  is  often,  employed  in  a 
similar  manner  ;  as,  "  If  he  ree/ardcd  his  own  interest,  he  would  be  more 
faithful  to  his  employer." 

TJem.  S. —  The  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  often  employed  to  express 
Indefinite  past  time;  as,   "I  should  have  walked  out  if  it  had  not 

rained^ 

Rem.  9. — la  expressing  general  propositions  wliich  have  no 
direct  relation  to  time,  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  should  be  em- 
ployed ;  as,  "  The  passion  for  power  and  superiority  is  universal." — 
Channincj. 

Rem.  10.  —  The  perfect  participle  of  an  irregular  verb  should  not 
be  used  for  the  past  tense,  nor  the  past  tense  for  the  perfect  partici- 
ple. The  following  expressions  are  therefore  incorrect :  —  "  The 
storm  hegun  to  subside  ;  "  —  "I done  it  in  great  haste  ; "  — "  He  was 
displeased  to  receive  a  letter  wrote  with  so  little  care."  Corrected : 
—  "The  storm  legan  to  subside ; "  —  "I  did  it  in  great  haste  ; "  — 
*'  He  was  displeased  to  receive  a  letter  written  with  so  little  care." 
This  rule  is  also  violated  when  the  past  tense  of  an  irregular  verb  ig 
used  with  an  auxiliary.  Thus,  instead  of  saying  "  The  sun  has 
roue"  we  should  say,  "  The  sun  has  risen." 

False  Syntax :  —  "  We  are  not  condemned  to  toil  through  half  a 
folio,  to  be  convinced  that  the  writer  has  broke  his  promise."  -^ 
Johnson.  "  The  champions  having  just  began  their  career,  the  king 
stopped  the  combat."  —  Goldsmith. 

"  Rapt  into  future  times,  the  bard  begun."  —  Pope. 

What  tense  is  cnploj/'cd  in  general  propositions,  havinq  no  direct  relatior  to 
time  1  Examples.  What  is  said  rcspectinf/  the  use  of  the  perfect  participle 
and  the  past  tense  of  an  irrrcjitlar  verb  ?  Illustrate.  Correct  the  false  syniaZf 
and  show  ichij  it.  is  fcdse. 


176  VERBS. 

Rule  XVI.  —  Paeticiples. 

§  239.  Participles  relate  to  Bouns  or  pronouns ;  as, 
*'  He  stood  leaning  on  his  spade,  and  gazing  at  the  brii^ht- 
ness  in  the  west." 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  participle  is  pi-eceded  by  the  negative  j)ar- 
ticle  WW,  it  becomes  an  adjective,  unless  the  verb  fi-om  which  it  is 
formed  admits  the  same  prefix.  The  words  unthing,  unsought,  un- 
seen, and  unknown,  are  examples  of  this  class  of  adjectives.  But 
the  words  unbinding,  unfolded,  undone,  etc.,  when  used  in  the  verbal 
sense,  are  to  be  regarded  as  participles,  since  they  are  formed 
regularly  from  the  verbs  unbind,  unfold,  undo,  etc. 

Rem.  2.  —  Participles  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns ;  as, 
•*  There  was  again  the  smacking  of  whips,  the  clattering  of  hoofs,  and 
the  gdttering  of  harness."  —  Irving. 

Rem.  a.  —  Participles  often  perform,  at  the  same  time,  the  office 
ot  a  noun  and  a  verb ;  as,  "  I  could  not  avoid  expressing  my  concern 
for  the  sti'anger.^  As  a  noun,  expressing  is  in  the  objective  case 
and  governed  by  avoid.  As  a  transitive  verb,  it  governs  the  word 
concern. 

Rem.  4. —  A  participle  is  sometimes  used  ahsolutehj,  hiwrng  no 

dependence  on  any  other  word ;  as,  "  Properly  speaking,  there  is 

no  such  thing  as  chance  ; "  —  "  This  conduct,  viewing  it  in  the  most 

favorable  hght,  reflects  discredit  on  his  character." 

Kem.  5.  —  A  participle  sometimes  relates  to  a  sentence  or  phrase;  as, 
"  He  had  been  strictly  secured  and  guarded,  owing  to  liis  former  escape." 
—  WoLter  Scott. 

"  To  do  aught  good  never  will  be  our  task, 
But  ever  to  do  ill  our  sole  delight, 
As  being  the  contrarv'  t6  his  hjgh  will 
Whom  we  resist." — Milton. 

Rem.  6.  —  There  are  certain  adjectives  which  are  derived  directly  from 
verbs,  and  supply  the  place  of  passive  participles.  Their  use  is  mostly 
confined  to  poetry. 

Examples :  —  "  Regions  consecrate  to  oldest  time." —  Wordsworth. 
'"Tis  dedicate  to  ruin." — Coleridge. 


Give  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  participles.  Examples.  Pai-tidplea 
preceded  by  the  negative  particle  un.  Examples  of  each  class.  Give  examples 
yf  participial  nouns.  \Miat  double  office  do  participles  of&i  perform  ?  Ex- 
amples.    Give  examples  of  participles  used  ahsolutclg. 


VERBS. RULE    XV:.  17V 

"  To  save  liiir.sclf  and  liousehold  from  amidst 
A  world  devote  to  universal  wreck." — Miltvn. 

[Foi  one  of  the  uses  of  the  imperfect  participle,  see  Rule  12,  Rem,  12.] 

EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

§  240.  Write  exercises  containing  objectives  governed  by  transi- 
tive verbs;  —  intransitive  verbs  governing  objectives  of  kindred  signi- 
fication ;  —  verbs  having  the  same  case  after  them  as  beibre  them ; 

—  verbs  in  the  infinitive  governed  by  verbs,  nouns,  and  a<ljective3 

—  verbs  in  tlie  infinitive  used  without  the  sign  ^o ,  —  impcrlect  and 
perfect  participles ; — parlicipial  nouns. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

§241.  '■'■  Kvil  communications  coniupt  good  manners."  —  "Thy 
name  shall  be  Abraham."  —  "  He  shall  be  called  Jolin."  —  "I  heard 
uim  relate  the  anecdote."  —  "I  have  written  exercises,  containing 
all  the  examples  required."  — "  Conversation  enriches  the  under- 
slanding,  hut  solitude  is  the  scAooZ  of  genius." — Gibbon.  '■'■  Napoleon 
was  never  knoivn  to  change  his  opinion  on  any  subject." — Alison. 
"  The  Puritans  were  men  ivhose  minds  had  derived  a  peculiar  char- 
acter from  the  daily  contemplation  of  superior  beings  and  eternal 
interests." — Macaulay. 

§  242.  "  The  daily  press  first  instructed  men  in  their  wants,  and 
■joon  found  that  the  eagerness  of  curiosity  outstripped  the  power  of 
<)ratifying  it." — Story.  "  He  that  teaches  us  any  thirtg  which  we 
knew  not  before,  is  undoubtedly  to  be  reverenced  as  a  master."— 
Johnson.  "  This  universal  pacification  has  hardly  been  thought  of." 
— Channing.  "  It  formeil  so  important  and  singular  a  feature  of 
tlieir  social  economy,  as  to  merit  a  much  more  particular  notice  than 
it  lias  received." — Prescott.  "  He  teas  offered  an  employment." — 
Campbell.  "  He  Zaj,' like  a  warrior  taking  his  rest." — Wolfe.  "In 
tlie  beginning  they  may  be  assailed  by  the  clamor  of  self-interesi, 
and  frowned  upon  by  the  worshippers  of  expediency." — N.  A.  Re- 
view. "  M;iny  approximations  have  been  made,  and  are  now  making, 
to  the  truth." — Lockhart.  "  We  make  provision  for  this  life,  as 
though  it  icere  never  to  have  an  end  ;  and  for  the  other  life,  as 
though  it  were  never  to  have  a  beginning."— Addison.     "  The  desire 

8* 


I'lS  SYNTAX. 

Ihai  our  country  should  du?-pass  all  otTiers,  icould  not  he  criminal^  did 
wc  understand  in  what  respects  it  is  most  honorable  for  a  nation  to 
excel." — Channing.  "  To  keep  always  prajjing  aloud  is  plainly 
impossible." — G.  Brown. 

Rule  XYII. — Adverbs. 

)  243.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other 
adverbs;  as,  '•'■^lew  frequenthj  contend  for  trifles;"  — 
"  It  -was  very  thankfully  received." 

Rem.  1.  —  An  adverb  is  frequently  used  to  modify  a  sentence  or 
phrase.* 

■    Exam])I('S  :  —  "Wliich  is  so  at  uxir]  with  nature." — Prof.  UadJork. 
"  Tlie  final  debate  on  the  resohition  was  postponed  for  nearly  a 
7noiitlu^ — Wirt.     "They  introduced    the  Deity  to  human  appre- 
hension, under  an   idea  more  personal,  more  determinate,   niorc 
within  its  compass." — Palei/.     "  The  other  productions  of  this  inde 
fatitrable  scholar,  embrace  a  large  circle  of  topics  imLpendently  of  his 
various  treatises  on  philoloey  and  criticism." — Prescotl.     "  Verily 
I  say  unto  you,  they  haA'e  their  reward." — Matt.  6:  2. 
Rem.  2.  —  An  adverb  is  sometimes  used  to  modify  a  preposition  jt  as, 
"  He  sailed  nearly  round  the  globe ;  "  —  "  He  was  wounded  just  below  tho 
ear." 

Rem.  3.  —  Adjectives  sliould  be  employed  to  qualify  72ouns  and 

p7-onouns,  and  adverbs  to  modify  rer&s,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

It  is  therefore   incorrect   to  say,  "  She  wa-ites   elegant."     "  Thine 

o/ien  inCiDiitles." 

Oes.  —  There  arc,  however,  certain  forms  of  expression  in  which  ad- 
»-erbs   bear  a  special  relation  to  nouns  or  pronouns ;  1|  as,  "  Behold,  I, 

Give  the  rule  for  adverbs.  -Examples.  What  are  adceibs  frequeiUhj 
used  to  modify,  besides  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adcabs?  Examples. 
\Vltal  distinction  should  be  observed  in  the  use  of  adjectives  and  adveibs  ? 
Illustrate. 

*  "  The  adverb  does  not  always  belong  to  any  one  single  word ;  nothing 
beina;  more  common  tlian  tlie  relation  of  an  adverb  to  a  clause,  all  of  who?e 
words  are  taken  as  one  word ;  and  almost  or  quite  as  frequently,  an  adverb 
stands  in  relation  to  a  whole  sentence." — Smart. 

t  "  Sometimes  a  preposition  and  a  noun  together  have  the  sigm'fication  of 
an  adjoctive ;  and,  as  such,  the  phrase  may  be  qualified  by  an  adverb  ;  as, 
donily  in  fault, — doubly  crimi7ial." — Parkhurst. 

X  See  Sanborn,  Parlihurst,  J.  M.  Putnam,  Wilbur,  Brace,  Emmons,  Golds- 
bury,  and  GooJenow. 

II  See  BuUions,  Allen  and  Comwcll,  Brace,  Butler,  Badgley,  and  Web- 
ber. 


ADVEKBS. RULE    XVII,  •  179 

even  I.  do  bring  a  flooil  of  waters." — Gm.  6:17.     "  For  our  gospel  came 
not  unto  jou  in  word  onlij,  but  also  in  power." — I  Tkess.  1  ;  5. 

Rem.  4  —  The  adverbs  yea,  yes,  nay,  no,  and  amen,  are  gen- 
erally used  independent!}'';  as,  "Will  you  go?"  '■^  No" — "Has 
tlie  hour  arrived  ?  "     "  Yes." 

Kem.  5.  —  Never  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  evei- ;  as,  "They 
miglit  be  extirpated,  were  they  never  so  many."  Con-ected:  —  "They 
might  be  extirpated,  were  they  ever  so  many." 

Resi.  6.  —  The  adverbs  hither,  thither,  and  whither,  are  now  seldom 
employed  except  in  grave  discourse,  their  places  being  supplied,  in  com- 
mon writings,  by  here,  there,  and  where;  as,  "It  was  dangerous  to  go 
there." — Irvinrj.  "  Traders  flocked  there  as  to  a  fair." — Prescott.  "  With- 
out knowing  whei-e  to  go." — Paley.     "  When  you  come  hereP —  Willis. 

iiEM.  7. —  Adverbs  are  sometime?  used  to  supply  the  place  of 

nouns. 

Examples:  —  "Till  noio  they  had  paid  no  taxes." — A.  H.  Everett. 
"On  the  following  day  Columbus  came  to  ?fAe7-e  the  coast  swept 
away  to  the  northeast  for  many  leagues." — Irvine/.  "  Save  where 
the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight." — Gray.  "  Till  then  who 
knew  the  force  of  those  dire  arms  ? " — Milton.  "  The  several 
sources  from,  ivhence  these  pleasures  are  derived." — Addison. 
"  From  hence  I  was  conducted  up  a  staircase." — Irving. 

Obs.  —  At  once,  and  by  far,  are  in  general  use;  and  the  adver- 
bial phrases  from  hence,  from  thence,  from,  tchence,  constitute  an 
authorized  idiom.  But  such  expres.sions  as  from  where,  from  there, 
to  here,  are  seldom  employed  by  the  best  prose  writers.  In  poetry, 
their  occurrence  is  more  frequent. 

Ke.m.  8. —  ]Vlirre,  an  adverb  of  place,  is  sometimes  improperly  era- 
]>loycd  without  reference  to  place,  for  the  phrase  in  which;  as,  "  They 
framed  a  protestation,  where  [in  which]  they  repeated  all  their  former 
claims." 

■Rem.  9.  —  The  adverb  there  is  often  used  for  the  sake  of  euphony, 
without  any  reference  to  place;  as,  "  There  is  an  hour  of  peaceful  rest." 
-W.  B.  Tappan.     "  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin." — 
Campbell.     When  used  in  this  sense,  there  is  called  an  expletive  adverb. 

"Rkm.  10.  —  The  v.-ord  all  is  frequently  used  as  an  adverb,  in  the  sense 
w/  wholly ;  as, 

"  Yet  our  great  enemy. 
All  incorruptible,  would  on  his  throne 
Sit  unpolluted."— .iW/oH. 

What  of  the  adverbs  yen,  yes,  nay,  no,  and  amen  ?    Examples.   What  pati 
9f  speech  are  adverbs  sometimes  used  to  represent?     Examples.     Which  of 
ihji  different  forms  of  erpressimi  named  are  aiUhorizcd,  and  ivhich  are  objec 
lionabk  ? 


180  SYNTAX. 

Rem.  1 1 .  -  -  a  negation  is  properly  expressed  by  the  use  uf  one 

negative  only.     The  following  sentence  is  therefore  erroneous :  — 

"  I  never  did  repent  for  doing  good, 
JVor  shall  7iot  now." — Shakspeare. 

Obs.  1.  —  Two  ncgat/ves  in  the  same  clause  are  generally  equivalent 
to  an  affirmative,  and  are  sometimes  elegantly  employed  to  express  a 
positive  assertion ;  as,  "  The  pilot  was  Jiot  wnacquaiuted  witli  the  coast  " 

—  "  Nor  did  he  pass  ttnmoved  the  gentle  scene." 

"  Nor  did  they  not  j)erceive  the  evil  plight 
In  which  they  were,  or  the  fierce  pain  not  feel." — Milton. 
The  intervention  of  ouhj,  or  some  other  word  of  kindred  meaning 
preserves  the  negation  ;  as,  "  He  was  not  only  i'/Iiberal,  but  covetous." 

Obs.  2.  —  A  repetition  of  the  same  negative  renders  the  negatioi 
more  emphatic ;  as,  "  I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms ;  —  never —  nc'vet 

—  never." — Pitt. 

Rem.  12. —  The  adverb  ho  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  not;  as. 
"  Whether  he  will  or  no,  he  must  be  a  man  of  the  nineteenth  century.' 
— Macaulay. 

Kem.  13.  —  Two  or  more  words  are  sometimes  used  in  connec- 
tion, as  a  compound  adverb,  or  adverbial  phrase. 

Examples:  — "  TVe  will  see  about  this  matter  hy  and  by." — Irving 
"Ishmael  went  forth  to  meet  them,  weeping  aW  alonr/  as  he  went." 
— Jer.  41 :  6.  "If  we  hope  for  what  we  are  not  likely  to  possess, 
■we  act  and  think  in  vain." — Addison. 

Rem.  i4.  —  Adverbs  should  be  placed  in  that  situation  which  con- 
tributes most  to  the  harmony  and  clearness  of  the  sentence,  and  which 
accords  best  with  the  usage  of  the  language.  This  rule  is  violated  in 
the  sentence,  "  Thoughts  are  07ily  criminal,  when  they  are  first  cho- 
sen and  then  voluntarily  continued."  As  it  stands,  the  adverb  only 
properly  qualifies  criminal,  whereas  the  author  intended  to  have 
it  qualify  that  portion  of  the  sentence  which  follows  the  comma. 
Corrected  :  —  "  Thoughts  are  criminal,  only  when  they  are  first  cho- 
sen and  then  voluntarily  continued." 

False  Syntax  :  —  "In  following  the  trail  of  his  enemies  through 
the  forest,  the  American  Indian  exhibits  a  degree  of  sagacity,  which 
almost  appears  miraculous."  — Alison.  "  There  are  certain  miseries 
in  idleness,  which  the  idle  can  only  conceive." — Johnson.  "  It  not 
only  has  form  but  life."  — N.  A.  Review. 

Hoio  is  a  negation  properly  expressed?  Give  examples  of  tlie  violation  of 

this  rule.      What  is  an  adt'o-bial  phrase  ?  Examples.     What  nde  should  be 

observed  respecti-M]  the  position  of  adverbs  ?  Illustrate.     Correct  the- false  syn- 
tax, and  show  why  it  is  false. 


CO.N'JUXCnONS. RLLE    XVIII.  181 

OiJS.  1.  —  An  advtirb  should  not  be  placed  immediately  after  the 
infinitive  particle  to.*  This  rule  is  violated  in  the  following  sen- 
tence :  —  "  Teach  scholars  to  carefully  scrutinize  the  sentiments  ad- 
vanced in  all  the  books  they  read." 

False  Syntax  :  —  "To  make  this  sentence  perspicuous  it  Avould  be 
necessary  to  entirely  remodel  it"  —  Newman's  Rhetoric.  "It  costs 
the  pupil  more  to  simply  state  the  examples  in  such  a  foi'm,  than  it 
does  to  perform  them  without  any  statement  at  all."  — N.  A.  Reoiew. 

Obs.  2.  —  The  adverb  enough  is  placed  after  the  adjective  which  it 
modifies,  and  both  the  adjective  and  the  adverb  are  jilaced  after  the  noun  ; 
as,  '■  A  house  large  enough  for  all." 

Rem.  15. —  The  words  howsoever,  ichichsoever,  and  whatsoever,  are  some- 
times divided  by  the  intervention  of  another  word  ;  as,  "  But  surely  this 
division,  how  long  soever  it  lias  been  received,  is  inadequate  and  falla- 
cious.'' — Johnsot},.     "  By  what  manner  soever."  —  Wayland. 

\ 

Rule  X^TU.     Conjunctions. 
§  244.  Conjunctions  connect  words  or  sentences ;   as, 
"  Idleness  and  Ignorance  are  the  parents  of  many  vices ; " 
—  "  He  fled  because  he  was  afraid." 

Rem.  1.  —  Relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive  adverbs  are  also 
employed  to  perform  the  office  of  connectives. 

Obs.  1.  —  In  the  compound  sentence,  "He  who  expects  much, 
"will  often  be  disappointed,"  the  relative  who  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  expects  in  one  clause,  and  relates  to  the  pronoun  he,  which  is 
the  subject  of  will  be  disappointed  in  the  other  clause.  The  con- 
nection expressed  by  who  in  this  example,  and  by  relative  pronouns 
generally,  is  quite  as  close  as  that  expressed  by  conjunctions.  See 
§  77,  Rem.  2. 

Obs.  2.  —  Many  conjunctive  adverbs  modify  the  two  verbs  em- 
braced in  the  difierent  clauses  which  they  connect ;   as,  "  When  he 

Wltat  cf  the  position  of  adverbs  modifyiiig  infinitives  ?  Correct  the  falsa 
syntax,  and  show  ichy  it  is  false.  Give  the  rule  respecting  conjunctions. 
Examples.  '  What  other  classes  of  icords  are  also  employed  as  connectives  f 
Illustrate  the  connective  office  of  a  relative  pronoun.  Twofold  modifying 
power  of  many  conjunctive  adverbs.     Examples. 

*  See  Davis,  Parkhurst,  Perlej',  and  Kennion. 


182  STXTAX. 

had  delivered  Ms  message  Le  departed ; "  —  "  Fame  may  give  praise, 

wh'de  it  withholds  esteem." 

Oes.  3.  —  A  conjunctive  adverb  used  to  supply  the  place  of  a 

preposition  and  a  relative  pronoun,  is  called  a  relative  adverb ;  as, 

"  The  shepherd  leaves  his  mossy  cottage,  where  \in  whichi  he  dwells 

in  peace  ; "  —  "  The  colonies  had  now  reached  that  stage  in  their 

growth,  ivhen  the  difficult  problem  of  colonial  government  must  be 

solved." 

Rem.  2.  —  There  are  certain  idiomatic  forms  of  expression  in  which  the 
coTinection  between  dilFerent  clauses  is  implied  in  the  relation  which  they 
bear  to  each  other  in  sense;  as,  "  In  this  last  case,  thcmore  apt  and  strik- 
in<j  is  the  analogy  sug:r:ested,  the  more  will  it  have  of  an  artificial  appear- 
ance."—  Whateli/.  "  Whatever  was  his  predominant  inclination,  neither 
hope  nor  fear  hindered  him  from  complying  with  it."  — Jclinson.  "  Sad  as 
his  story  is,  it  is  not  altogether  mournful." —  Sotithey. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  conjunction  thai  often  performs  the  office  of  a  pronoun 
or  substitute.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  know  that  he  will  return,"  iAo^ 
represents  the  clause  he  will  return,  and  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
know.    See  Rem.  11. 

Oes.  1.  —  The  conjunction  tAaHs  often  suppressed  when  the  connection 
of  the  different  clauses  is  ob^^ous ;  as,  "  But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambi- 
tious."—  Shakspeare. 

Obs.  2.  —  When,  however,  the  connection  of  the  clauses  is  less  intimate 
the  omission  of  that  is  objectionable;  as,  "  His  ingenuity  was  such  [thatj 
he  could  form  letters,  make  types  and  wood  cuts,  and  engrave  vignettes 
in  copper."  —  Bancroft. 

Rem.  4.  —  Two  or  more  words  are  sometimes  used  together  as  a 

compound  conjunction  or  conjunctive  phrase. 

Examples :  —  "  It  has  been  observed  that  happiness,  as  weli  as  virtue, 
consists  in  mediocrity." — Johnson.  "The  WTiter,  by  whom  the 
noble  features  of  our  sceneiy  shall  be  sketched  with  a  glowing 
pencil,  and  the  peculiarities  of  our  character  seized  with  'delicate 
perception,  cannot  mount  so  entirely  and  rapidly  to  success,  biU 
that  ten  vears  will  add  new  millions  to  the  number  of  his  read- 
ers."—£".  iJrerea. 

Obs.  —  Many  expressions  of  this  class  are  elliptical;  but  it  is  generally 
better  not  to  attempt  to  supply  the  words  omitted,  unless  they  ai-e  obvi- 
ously implied. 

CORRESPONDING  CONJUNCTIONS. 
Rem.  5.  —  Some  conjunctions  are  composed  of  two  corresponding 
words.   The  following  list  embraces  most  of  this  class  of  connectives, 
and  exhibits  the  correct  mode  of  employing  them  :  — 

Wlmt  is  <t  relative  adverb  ?  Examples.  Compound  conjunctions  Ev 
amples.     Corresponding  conjunctions. 


CONJUNCTIONS. EULE    XVIII.  183 

Both  —  and:  "It  is  the  work  of  a  mind  fitted  Jo^A  for  minuta 
researches  and  for  large  speculations."  —  Macaulay. 

T/iouf/h,  although  —  yet,   still,   neverthelexa  :   '■^Though  deep,  yet 
clear,  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; "  —  "  Though  a  thousand  rivei-s 
discharge  themselves  into  the  ocean,  still  it  is  never  full." 
Whether  —  or  :  "  Whether  it  were  I  or  they." 
Either  —  or :  "Xo  leave  ask'st  thou  o?  either  wind  or  tide." 
.Neither  —  nor :  "  Neither  act  nor  promise  hastily." 

Obs.  —  The  poets  frequently  use  or  —  or  for  either  —  or,  and  nor 

—  nor  {or  neither  —  nor;  as, 

"  Not  to  be  tempted  from  her  tender  task, 

Or  [either]  by  sharp  hunger,  or  by  smooth  delight." —  Thomson. 
"  Nor  [neither]  eye  nor  listening  ear  an  object  finds."  —  Young. 

Rkm.  6.  — Some  conjunctions  are  used  in  correspondence  with 
adverbs  or  adjectives.  The  following  are  the  principle  connectives 
of  this  class  :  — 

As  —  as,  so:  "  She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister ; "  — "  As  he  excels 
in  virtue,  so  he  rises  in  estimation." 

So  —  as:  "  No  riches  make  one  so  happy  as  a  clear  conscience." 

—  "  Speak  so  as  to  be  -anderstood." 

So  —  that,  expressing  a  consequence  :  "  She  speaks  so  low  that  no 
one  can  hear  what  she  is  saying." 

Not  only  —  hut,  hut  also :  "  He  wr^  not  only  prudent,  hut  also 
industrious." 

Such  —  as :  "  There  never  was  such  a  time  cr-s  the  present." 

Such  —  that :  "  Such  is  the  emptiness  of  human  enjojTnent,  that 
we  are  always  impatient  of  the  present." 

More,  sooner,  etd  —  than :  "  They  have  more  than  heart  could 
wish  ; "  —  "  The  Greeks  were  braver  than  the  Persians." 

Ob3. —  Than  should  be  used  to  correspond  with  rather  and  with 
all  comparatives  ;  as,  "  Receive  knowledge  rather  than  choice  gold ; " 

What  conjunction  is  ttsed  to  correspond  with  both  ?  Give  an  example. 
The  teacher  should  proceed  in  a  similar  manner  through  the  list  of 
corresponding  conjunctions,  and  repeat  the  exercise  till  the  pupils  are 
able  to  distinguish  readily  the  terms  which  properly  correspond  with 
each  other.  ]Vhat  tuords  are  employed  by  the  poets  to  correspond  with  or 
and  nor  7  Examples.  With  what  words  does  than  properly  conespond  ? 
Examples. 


184  SYNTAX. 

—  "Wisdom  is  letter  than  rubies."  'The  clause  followinjr  other*  is, 
also  more  properly  introduced  b}'  than,  though  good  wi'iters  'occa- 
sionally employ  some  other  temi. 

Rem.  7.  —  The  negatives  no,  not.  etc.,  may  be  followed  by  either  or  or 
nor.  The  use  of  nor  serves  to  repeat  the  nefration  ;  and  there  arc  man_v 
cases  in  which  it  is  decidedly  preferable  to  or.f 

Examples  :  —  "  There  are  no  more  continents  or  worlds  to  be  reveal 
ed."  —  E.  Everett.  "  It  is  7iot  by  accuracy  or  profundity,  that  men 
become  masters  of  great  assemblies."  —  Macaulaij.  '' I  know  «ot 
where  to  begin,  nor  where  to  end."  —  E.  Everett.  "  He  nccer  con 
vinces  the  reason,  nor  fills  the  imagination,  nor  touches  the  heart." 
—  Macaulay.  ."Let  not  your  fancy,  nor  your  excited  feehngs  lead 
you  captive."  —  B.B.Edwards.  "The  exiles  of  New  England 
saw  not  before  them  either  a  home  or  a  country."  —  Stoi-ij. 

Hem.  8. — The  conjunction  as,  used  in  connection  with  an  adjec- 
tive or  adverb  in  the  positive  degree,  is  sometimes  improperly  coupled 
with  a  comparative,  and  followed  by  than  ;  as,  "  The  latest  posterity 
will  listen  with  as  much,  or  even  ^rea/er  pleasure  than  their  contem 
poraries."  —  A.  II.  Everett.  Corrected  :  —  "  The  latest  posterity  will 
listen  with  as  much  pleasure  as  their  contemporaries,  or  even  greater." 

Correct  Example  :  —  "I  am  as  well  as  you  have  ever  known  me 
m  a  time  of  much  trouble,  and  even  better." —  Cowper. 

False  Syntax :  —  "A  vision  came  before  him,  as  constant  and 
more  terrible  than  that  from  which  he  had  escaped."  —  Dickens 
"I  have  proceeded  in  the  revisal,  as  far,  and  somewhat  farther  than 
the  fifteenth  book."  —  Cowper. 

Rem.  9.  —  The  conjunction  o?- is  sometimes  employed  to  connect 
words  that  are  in  apposition  ;  as,  "  No  disease  of  the  mind  can  more 
/atally  disable  it  from  benevolence,  than  ill-humor  or  peevishness." 
Peevi.^hness  is  not  here  a  distinct  thing  from  ill-humor,  but  merely 
another  term  for  the  s^ame  idea. 

Rem.  10.  —  The  word  as  has  a  variety  of  uses,  some  of  which 
deserve  pai-ticular  notice.     It  is  employed,  — 

1.  In  connection  with  certain  prepositions  ;  as,  "  It  would  have 

Improper  use  of  iha.x\  to  orrapond  with  sls.  Correct  the  false  syntax  and 
fhow  tvhy  it  i'i  false.  What  peculiar  office  does  or  sometimes  perform  ?  Illus- 
trate.   What  peculiar  uses  of  as  are  mentioned  9     Give  examples  of  each  kind. 

*  "In  the  book  of  Common  Prayer,  we  nave,  '  Thou  shall  have  no  other 
Goih  hut  me;'  and  the  same  expression  occurs  in  Addisor,  SwJi't,  and 
other  contemporary  writer.*.  Usage,  bo'.v(>ver,  ctcins  oria'^e  to  h.i.ve  dcciJed 
almost  utii  'ersally  in  favor  :>{  than."  — i>, ,  flfunbL'. 

*  See  Burns's  Grammar. 


CONJUNCIIONS. RULE    XVIII.  185 

been  idle  fnr  the  pb.ilolbpher  to  form  conjectures,  as  to  the 
direction  which  the  kindling  genius  of  the  age  was  to  assume." 

—  E.  Everett.     "  As  for  the  rest  of  those  who  have  written 
against  me,  they  deser%-e  not  the  least  notice."  —  Dryden. 

4'.  To  connect  nouns  and  pronouns  v/hich  are  in  apposition ;  as 
"  Nor  ought  we,  as*  citizens,  to  acquiesce  in  an  injurious  act." 

—  Charming.     See  also  Rule  2,  Eem.  7. 

3.  To  connect  adjectives  and  participles  with  the  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns to  which  they  belong  ;  as,  "  The  infantry  was  regarded 
as  comparatively  worthless."  —  Macaulay.     "  Their  presence 
was  of  great  moment,  as  giving  consideration  to  the  enter- 
prise." —  Prescolt. 
Rem.  11. —  The  conjunction  that  is"T)ften  employed  to  introduce  a  sen- 
tence or  clause,  which   is  used  as  a  noun  in  the  nominative  or  objective 
case  ;  as,  "  That  the  idea  of  rjlonj  should  he  associated  strongly  with  military 
exploits,  ought  not  to  be  wondered  at."  —  Chaniiing. 

Rem.  12.  —  The  conjunction  so  is  occasionally  used  in  the  sense  of  if, 
or  provided  that ;  as,  "It  signifies  little  wH^ther  it  be  very  well  executed 
or  not,  so  it  be  reasonably  well  done,  and  without  any  glaring  omissions 
or  errors."  —  Brouyhaia. 

Rem.  13.  —  The  word  than  was  formerly  employed  as  a  preposition, 
and  still  retains  this  character  in  the  pln-ase  than  ivhom  ;\  as,  "  There  sat 
a  patriot  sage,  than  whom  the  English  language  does  not  possess  a  better 
writer."  —  E.  Everett. 

"  Which,  when  Beiilzcbub  perceived,  than  whom, 
Satan  except,  none  higher  sat,  with  grave 
Aspect  he  rose." —  Milton. 
"  Felon  unwhipp'd  !  than  ivhom  in  yonder  cells 
Full  many  a  groaning  wretch  less  guilty  dwells."  —  Spragw. 
Qjjg.  —  The  jjhrase  than  which  is  also  sometimes  used  in  a  similar  man- 
ner; as,  "  A  work,  than  which  the  age  has  certainly  produced  none  more 
sure  of  bequeathing  its  author's  name  to  the  admiration  of  future  times." 
—  J.  G.  Palfrey. 

Rem.  14.  —  The  word  both  sliould  not  be  used  with  reference  to 
more  than  two  objects  or  classes  of  objects.  The  following  example 
is  therefore  erroneous :  — "  He  paid  his  contributions  to  literary  un- 
dertakings, and  assisted  both  the  Tatler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian." 
~-  J  \7ison.     Both  should  be  omitted. 


What  care  should  be  obsg  •ed  in  the  use  of  the  icord  both  1     Ilhtstrats. 


*  Several  respectable  grammarians  entertain  the  opinion  that  as  in  this 
and  similar  examples  is  a  preposition,  governing  the  following  noun.  l5o3 
Fuller,  J.  M.  Putnam,  Sanborn,  Cobb,  and  Einmons. 

t  "  The  comparative  aijreeth  to  the  parts  compared,  by  adding  this  pre- 
jiosition,  thaji." —  Ben  ^JoJinsoii  ;  London,  IGIO.  See  also  Crombie, 
Priestley,  Wm.  Ward,  Bickuell,  Meiian,  aad  Luidsay. 


186  SYNTAX. 

Rem.  15.  —  The  conjunctions  thaft  and  as  are  fi'cqucntly  followed 
by  an  ellipsis  of  one  or  more  T.'ords  required  to  complete  the  con- 
Btruction  ;  as,  "  INIore  than  one  [  ]  of  his  plays  are  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  its  illustration."  —  Prescott.  "  He  was  the  father  of  all 
such  as  \_     ]  handle  the  har|)  and  organ." —  Gen.  4  :  21. 

Ob9.  —  Examples  sometimes  occur  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  supply 
the  ellipsis  satisfactorily,  -^-hile  the  sense  is  rlearly  conveyed  by  the  ex- 
pression in  its  abridged  form.  In  parsing  such  examples,  it  v.-oukl  be 
better  for  the  pupil  to  refer  to  the  foregioing  remark,  and  not  attempt  to 
supply  words  wliich  are  altogether  rejected  by  the  idiom  of  the  language. 
Thus,  in  the  first  example  above,  the  word  one  may  be  parsed  as  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb  understood,  without  naming  any  particular  word  to  complete 
the  construction.  But  in  the  second  example,  the  ellipsis  is  more  readily 
supplied.  "He  was  the  father  of  all  such  as  [those  who]  handle  the  hai-p 
and  organ."  In  parsing  examples  of  this  class,  it  is  better  to  supply  the 
elhpsis.    See  §  300. 

Rule  XIX.  —  Prepositions  —  Eelation. 

§  245.  Prepositions  .^lonnect  words  and  show  the  rela- 
tion between  them. 

S.EJI.  1 .  —  In  parsing  a  preposition,  both  terms  of  the  relation 
expressed  by  it  should  be  pointed  out.  One  of  these  terms  is 
always  the  object  of  the  preposition  ;  the  other  may  be  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  a  noun,  or  an  adverb.  In  the  sentence,  "He  travelled 
for  pleasure,"  yb?-  shows  the  relation  between  joZeaswre  and  the  verb 
travelled.  In  the  sentence,  "  They  were  destitute  o/ food,"  q/ shows 
the  relation  between  food  and  the  adjective  destitute.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "  This  is  an  age  of  improvement,"  q/"  shows  the  relation  be- 
tween improvement  and  the  noun  age.  In  the  sentence,  "Amb.assa- 
dors  were  sent  previously  to  the  declaration,"  to  shows  the  relation 
between  declaration  and  the  adverb  previously. 

Obs.  —  There  are  certain  elliptical  forms  of  speech  in  which  the  ante- 
cedent term  of  relation  is  omitted  ;  as, 

"  O  for  the  voice  and  fire  of  seraphim. 
To  sing  thy  glories  with  devotion  due  ! " —  Beattie. 

Rem   2.  —  A  preposition  and  its  object  should  be  so  placed  as  to 

leave  no  ambiguity  in  regard  to  the  words  which  the  preposition  is 

intended  to  connect.     The  following  sentence  is  faulty  in  this  res- 

E;.;  what  are  the  conjunctions  than  and  us  freqiienth/  folloivcd?  Examples. 
Give  the  rule  for  the  relation  expressed  by  prepositions.  Illustrate.  Whit 
nde  is  given  respecting  the  post  ion  of  a  preposition  and  its  object^ 


PREPOSITlOyS. KULE    XIX.  18? 

pect :  — "  The  message  was  communicated  by  an  agent,  vrho  liad 

never  before  discharged  any  important  ofBce  of  trust,  in  compliance 

with  the  instructions  of  the  executi%-e."    In  is  here  intended  to  show 

the  relation  between  was  communicated  and  compliance  ;  whereas  the 

present  arrangement  indicates  that  it  expresses  the  relation  between 

had  discharged  and  compliance.     Corrected  :  —  "  The  message  was 

communicated  in  compliance  with  the  instructions  of  the  executive, 

by  an  agent  who  had  never  before  discharged  any  important  office 

of  trust" 

Rem.  3.  —  The  use  of  two  prepositions  before  a  single  noun,  though 
inelegant,  often  contributes  to  perspicuity  and  brevity,  and  has  the  sanc- 
tion of  many  good  writers. 

Examples: — "ilen's  passions  and  interests  mix  t«V^,  and  are  ex- 
pressed in,  the  decisions  of  the  intellect."  —  Cliannitvj.  "  They  were 
never  revealed  to,  nor  confronted  with,  the  prisoner."  —  Prescott. 
"  "We  have  never  uttered  a  word  in  this  Journal,  either  in  advocacy 
of,  or  in  opposition  to,  anj'  particular  religious  sect,  or  political 
party  amongst  us."  —  Horace  Mann. 

Obs.  —  The  same  remark  applies  also  to  the  use  both  of  a  preposition 
and  a  transitive  verb  before  a  single  object. 

Examples:  — "  It  was  created  to  influence,  and  not  solely  to  be  influ- 
enced by,  the  opinions  of  the  community."  —  N.  A.  Review.  "And 
may  readily  associate  u-ith,  and  promote  either."  —  Dr.  Hopkins. 
"  We  are  so  made  as  to  be  capable,  not  only  of  perceiving,  but  also 
of  being  pleased  with,  or  pained  by,  the  various  objects  by  which 
we  are  suiTOunded."  —  Wayland. 

Rem.  4.  —  Two  or  more  words  are  sometimes  used  together  as 

a  compound  preposition ;  &3,  ^^  From  between  the  arcades,  the  eye 

glances  up  to  a  bit  of  blue  sky,  or  a  passing  cloud."  —  Irving.    "  Ovei 

against  this  church  stands  a  large  hospital."  —  Addison. 

Rem.  5.  —  Care  should  be  taken  to  employ  such  prepositions  as 
express  clearly  and  precisely  the  relations  intended. 

Correct  Examples :  —  "  He  went  to  New  York ;"  —  "  He  arrived 
at  Liverpool ;"  —  "  He  rode  into  the  country ;"  —  "  He  resides  in 
r,ondon ;"  —  "  He  walks  with  a  staff  by  moonh'ght ;"  —  "  The  mind 
13  sure  to  revolt  from  the  humiliation  of  being  thus  moulded  and 
fashioned,  in  respect  to  its  feelings,  at  the  pleasure  of  another."  — 
WhaKjj. 

False  Syntax :  —  "  We  differ  entirely  with  Lord  Brougham."  — ■ 
A''.  Y.  Review.    "  Tlie  posthimious  volumes  appeared  in  considerable 

Illustrate.  Give  examples  of  compound  prepositions.  TVhal  care  should  6« 
ohseiTed  in  the  choice  of  prepositions?  Corred.  the  false  syntax,  and  shoto 
wny  it  is  false. 


188  SYNTAX. 

intervals."  —  Hallam.  "  It  was  not  evident  what  deity  or  what  foiTn 
of  worship  they  had  substituted  to  the  gods  and  temples  of  an- 
tiquity." —  Gibbon. 

EULE   XX.  —  PkEPOSITIOXS.  —  Go VERXMENT. 

§  246.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
"  Thej  came  to  us  in  the  spirit  of  kindness  ; ''  —  '•'■From 
him  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away." 

Ke.m.  1. —  A  preposition  sliould  never  be  introduced  to  govern  a  word 
wliiok  is  properly  the  oliject  of  a  transitive  verb.  Tiius,  instead  of  say- 
ing, "  We  delight  to  contemplate  on  the  wonders  of  creation,"  we  should 
say,  "  We  delight  to  contemplate  the  wonders  of  creation." 

Rem.  2.  —  Respecting  the  ellipsis  o(  prepositions,  no  definite  rule  can 
be  given.  Care  should  be  taken  to  conform  to  the  usage  of  good  writers. 
In  the  following  sentence  the  preposition  is  imjjroperly  omitted:  — 
"  Chemistry  and  Botany  will  be  studied  the  S|)ring  term."  — ^Corrected :  — 
"  Chemistry  and  Botany  v/ill  be  studied  durino  the  Spring  term."  The 
following  is  also  objectionable  :  —  "It  is  worthy  the  consideration  of  all." 
—  N.  A.  Review.     0/ should  be  inserted  after  worthy.     See  §  293. 

Ee3I.  3.  —  A  noun  or  pronoun  following  like,  unlike,  near,  or  viyh,  is 
often  governed  by  a  preposition  understood ;  *  as  "  Solomon,  in  all  his 
glory,  was  not  arrayed  like  [to]  one  of  these ;"  — "  The  house  stands  neat 
[to]  a  river." 

Reji.  4.  —  The  word  save  is  frequently  used  to  peiform  the  office  of  a 
preposition ;  as, 

"  And  all  desisted,  all  save  him  alone."  —  Wordsworth. 
Rem.  5.  —  But\  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  preposition,  in  the  sense 

What  do  prepositions  govern  1  Examples.  No.ms  and  pronouns  following 
th/  words  like,  unlike,  and  nigh.     Examples.     The  word  save.     Examples. 

*  Like,  unlike,  near  and  nigh,  are  classed  by  some  grammarians  with 
prepositions. 

"  \Ve  have  not  placed  them  with  the  prepositions,  for  four  reasons  ;  (1.) 
because  they  are  sometimes  comjtared;  (2.)  because  they  sometimes  Lave 
advirhs  evidently  relating  to  tliem ;  (3.)  because  the  preposition  to  or  u.xto  is 
Bonietimes  expressed  after  them  ;  and,  (4.)  because  the  words  which  nsually 
stand  for  tliem  in  the  learned  languages,  are  clearly  adjectivRs."  -^  G.  Brown. 

t  The  use  of  hut  as  a  preposition  is  discountenanced  by  G.  Brown,  San- 
bom,  ilurray,  S.  Oliver,  and  several  other  grammarians. '  See  also  an  able 
article  in  the  Massachusetts  Cftnmon  School  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 

The  use  of  but  as  a  preposition  is  approved  by  J.  E.  AVorcester,  John 
Walker,  R.  C.  Smith,  Pickett,  Hiley,  Angus,  Lynde,  Hull,  Powers,  Spear, 
l-'arnuni.  Kowle,  Goldsbury.  Perley,  Cobb,  Badgley,  Cooper,  Jones,  Davis, 
Beall.  llendriek,  Hazen,  Goodenow,  Weld,  Pinneo,  Spencer,  and  others. 

"  It  is  a  preposition  where  we  say,  '  I  saw  no  one  but  him  .•'  yet  we  may 
by  an  ellipsis  still  explain  it  as  a  conjunction,  —  'I  saw  no  one' but  [I  saw] 
liim  ;'  —  or,  by  another  ellipsis,  as  an  adverb,  — 'I  saw  no  one  [I  saw]  but 
him,  that  is,  otdi/  '  him.'  The  simplest  explanation,  or  that  which  dispense? 
with  the  contrived  ellipsis,  is  the  best." — '  Smart. 


IXTEUJECTIOXS. RULE     XXI.  18!) 

of  except;  as,  "No  one  can  appreciate  the  beauty  and  majesty  of  the 
lieavens,  hul  him  who  has  been  shut  out  from  every  other  prospect  for 
days  and  weeks  tofrether."  —  Graham's  Macjazine. 

"  The  boy  stood  on  the  burninfr  deck, 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled."  —  Remans. 

Rem.  6.  —  "  O^doch"  is  an  elliptical  expression,  contracted  from  "Of 
the  clock."* 


Rule  XXI.  —  LsfXERjECTiONS. 

§247.  Interjections  have  no  grammatical  relation  t~> 
the  other  words  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  "  These  were  delight- 
ful days  ;  but,  alas!  thej  are  no  more." 

EXERCISES  ra  COMPOSITION. 

§  248.  Write  exercises  containing  examples  of  adverbs ;  —  con- 
junctions ;  —  conjunctive  adverhs  modifying  verbs  in  two  different 
clauses ;  —  a  relative  adverb  ;  —  several  examples  of  corresponding 
conjunctions  ;  —  examples  of  prepositions  and  interjections. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Model. 
§  249.  "  He  came  in  haste,  and  soon  returned. 

In  is  a  preposition,  expressing  the  relation  of  the  noun  haste  to  the 
verb  came.    Prepositions  connect  words  and  show  the  relation  be 
tween  them.  • 

And  is  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  two  clauses.  He  came  and  [Ae]  re- 
turned.    Conjunctions  connect  words  or  sentences. 

Soon  is  an  adverb,  modifying  the  sense  of  the  verb  retwned.    Adverbs 
modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

"  He  is  vertj  cautious."  —  "  Health  and  plenty  cheer  the  laboring 
swain."  —  "  The  weakest  kind  of  fruit  drops  soonest  to  the  ground." 
—  "ShaJcspeare.  ''  If  men  see  our  faults,  they  ivill  talk  among  them^ 
selves,  tJiough  we  refuse  to  let  them  talk  to  us."  —  "  Wai-  is  to  be 
ranked  among  the  inost  dreadful  calamities  wJiich  fiiU  on  a  guilty 
world" —  Channing. 

"  0  Solitude  !  where  are  the  charms 
TTiat  sages  Tiave  seen  in  thy /ace  ?"  — Cowper. 

Wliat  is  the  rule  respecting  interjections  1     Examples. 

■*  "  At  seven  of  the  clock:''  —'Spectator.     "  By  five  of  \he  thcl:'  ■—  Shaks- 
peare. 


190  SYNTAX. 

§  250.  "/^  is  not  true,  tliat  the  state  of  public  morals  arrd  virtue  u 
as  elevated  as  that  of  the  individuals  iclio  compose  a  communitv."  — 
B.  B.  Edwards,  i'  When  a  great  principle  is  at  stake,  we  must  learn 
■  to  dismiss  a//minordiirerences."  —  Ibid.  "  iYo(o  Moses  kept  the  ^ocl 
of  Jelhro,  his  father-in-law." — Exodus  3  :  1.  '■'■How  little  opportu- 
nity for  mental  improvement  do  evert*  they  possess  !  "  —  E.  Everett. 
"  He  did  not,  like  a  leader,  get  up  on  an  eminence,  nadfro^n  thenct 
survey  ihc  ?,\xh]Qci  in  all  its  hearings."  —  Brougham.  "Their  road 
lay  through  the  beautifiil  land  where  they  had  been  so  long  lingering. 
—  Prescott.  "  The  sanctity  of  private  property  M;as  recognized,  a» 
the  surest  guaranty  of  order  and  abundance."  —  Bancroft. 
"  Doth  he  come  from  where  the  swords  iiashed  high  ?  "  —  Hemans. 

"  We  took  our  seats 
By  many  a  cottage-hearth,  where  he  received 
The  welcome  of  an  inmate  come  from  far."  —  Wordsworth 
*'  Nor  pride  nor  poverty  dares  come 
Within  that  refuge-house,  the  tomb." — Croly. 
"  Liberty,  as  icell  as  religion,  has  too  deep  an  interest  in  the 
change  which  is  to  be  effected."  —  Prof   C.  Dewey.     '^As  to  the 
question  of  abstract  right,  I  should  hardly  undertake  its  discussion 
at  this  time."  —  Dana.     "I  have  all  along  gone  on  the  ground  of 
the  mutual  influence  of  the  private  upon  the  public,  and  the  2)ublic 
upon  the  private  relation."  —  Ibid.     "  Nor  is  this  enterprise  to  be 
scoffed  at  as  hopeless." — Channing.     ^'^  It  yv3.s  my  good  fortune  to 
meet  in  a  dinner  party,  with  more  7nen  of  celebrity  in  science  or 
polite  literature,  than  are  commonly /ou/itZ  collected  round  the  saiiie 
table." —  Coleridge. 

Rule  XXII.  —  Gtenkral  Rule. 
§  2-51.  The  different  parts  of  a  sentence  should  Lo 
made  to  harmonize  v>ith  one  another  ;  and  the  several 
clauses  should  be  so  constructed  and  arranged  as  to 
express  clearly  the  various  relations,  connections,  and 
dependences  intended,  according  to  the  best  u='ages  of 
th«  language. 
Repeat  the  general  rule  of  Syntax. 

'  '     '  — ■  —  ■ • ■ *    ■  ■  ■ '  »J» 

*  See  Kule  17,  ReraT  3,  Obd. 


GENERAL    RULE.— 1/ CLE    XXII.  191 

I?.EM.  1.  —  Tliis  rale  is  sufEciently  comprehensive  to  eml)rac3  all  the 
different  forms  of  construction  in  the  h'.ngiutge.  It  is,  how-zver,  too 
general  to  afford  special  guidance  to  learners,  and  should  bb  applied 
only  in  cases  for  which  no  deftnile  rule  is  given. 

Rem.  2. —  The  abvcrbs  rather  and  6rf<«- are  often  used  in  coouection 
"with  the  auxiliary  had;  as,  "I  had  rather  remain:"  —  "He  /►a</  bciter 
return."  These  forms  of  expression  are  anomaloas,  but  their  use  in  the 
familiar  style  is  too  well  established  to  be  controverted.  Good  authors 
Bometiraes  employ  them  also  in  elevated  writings,  but  this  practice  \i  not 
to  be  recommended. 

Examples :  —  "  Yon  are  therefore  to  consider  whether  you  had  rather 

oblige  than  receive  an  obligation."  —  Spectator.    "Practices  which 

had  much  better  be  inferred  from  general    rules."  —  N.  A.  Reoiew. 

"  They  had  rather  part  with  life,  than  bear  the  thought  of  surviving 

all  that  made  life  dear  to  them." — Hazlitt. 

Kem.  3.  —  The  expressions,  "  had  as  lief,"  "  had  like,"  and  "  had  ou<cht," 
are  anomalous  and  inelegant,  and  should  be  carefully  avoided.  Enoncoui 
examples:  —  "More  serious  consequences  had  like  to  have  resulted.''  — 
Prescott.     "  /  had  as  lief  the  town-crier  spoke  ray  lines."  —  Shakspeare. 

False  Syntax,  under  the  General  Rule. 

"  It  belonged  to  that  peculiar  class  of  poetry,  ■which  never  h.'»s, 
and  never  will  awaken  sjTupathy  in  the  universal  heart."  —  N.  A. 
Review. 

"  Among  all  the  animals  upon  "which  nature  has  impressed  de- 
formity and  horror,  there  is  none  Avhom  he  durst  not  encounter."  — 
Johnson. 

"  The  sun  looketh  forth  from  the  halls  of  the  morning, 
And  flushes  the  clouds  that  begirt  his  career."  —  W.  G.  Clark. 

"  The  manner  in  which  these  essays  were  given  to  the  world,  on 
separate  sheets,  acd  with  an  interval  of  a  few  days  between  tlie 
publication  of  each,  distinguished  them  from  every  thing  of  the  kind 
which  had  preceded  them."  —  N.  A.  Review. 

"Domestic  society  is  the  seminary  of  the  social  aiiectious,  the 
cradle  of  sensibihty,  where  the  fii-st  elements  are  acquired  of  that 
tenderness  and  humanity  which  cement  mankind  together;  and 
■which,  were  they  entirely  extinguished,  the  whole  fabric  of  social 
institutions  would  be  dissolved  "  —  Hall. 

"  Deliver  me  from  the  hand  of  strange  children,  whose  mouth 
fcpeaketh  vanity,  and  their  right  Land  is  a  right  hand  of  falsehood." 
^Ps.  144  :  11. 

"  I  have  only  touched  on  these  several  heads,  which  every  one 

Correct  the  false  syntax,  and -show  why  it  isfidse. 


192  SYNTAX. 

who  is  conversant  in  discourses  of  tliis  nature  will  easily  enlarge 
upon  in  his  own  thoughts,  and  draw  conclusions  from  ihenx  which 
may  be  useful  to  him  in  the  conduct  of  his  life."  —  Spectator. 

"The  perplexity  that  attends  a  multipllcitj'  of  criticisms  by 
various  hands,  many  of  wliich  are  sure  to  be  futile,  many  of  them 
ill-founded,  and  some  of  them  conti-adictory  to  others,  is  inconceiv- 
ible." —  Cowper. 

"  The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  among  one  an- 
other." —  Spectator. 

"  Thus,  ofl  by  mariners  are  shown 
Earl  Grodwin's  castles  overflown."  —  Swift. 


GENERAL  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

§  252.  "  The  happiness  of  life  is  made  up  of  an  infinite  nur/iher  of 
little  things,  and  not  of  startling  events  and  great  emotions;  and  he 
who  daily  and  hourly  diffuses  pleasure  around  him  by  kind  ofSces, 
frank  salutations,  and  cheerful  looks,  deserves  as  well  of  his  species, 
as  he,  who,  neglecting  or  despising  all  these,  makes  up  for  it  by  occa- 
sional acts  of  generosity,  justice,  or  benevolence." — G.  S.  Hdlard. 

"  It  were,  indeed,  a  bold  task  to  venture  to  draw  into  comparison 
the  relative  merits  of  Jay  and  Hamilton."  — Dr.  Hawks. 

"  Success  being  now  hopeless,  preparations  were  made  for  a  re- 
treat." —  Alison. 

"  The  name  of  a  mother ;  -;=-  ^uhat  a  long  history  does  it  bring  with 
it  q/"  smiles  and  words  of  mildness,  of  tears  shed  by  night  and  o?  sign.' 
ings  at  the  morning  dawn,  of  love  unrequited,  of  cares  for  icJiich 
there  can  be  no  recompense  on  earth."  —  Prof  E.  A.  Park. 

"  How  feeble  were  the  attempts  at  planting  towns,  is  evident  from 
the  nature  of  the  tenure  by  which  the  lands  near  the  Saco  were 
held."  —  Bancroft. 

"  The  language  and  literature,  as  well  as  the  history  of  Spain, 
have,  till  within  a  few  years  past,  attracted  little  attention  in  the  United 
States  ;  a  neglect  which  would  be  a  suhject  of  the  greater  reproach 
to  us,  if  we  could  notfnd  some  apology  for  it  in  the  less  pardonable 
indifference  of  other  nations,  tcho  have  more  leisure  to  indulge 
themselves  in  the  pleasures  of  literature  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  the 
ever  busy  inhabitants  of  the  United  Stat€s."  —  N.  Y.  Review. 


GENERAL    EXERCISES.  1 'Jo 

*'  When  events  are  made  familiar  to  us  by  history,  we  are  j)er- 
^a/iA- disposed  to  undervalue  the  wisdom  that  foretold  them." — Th. 

Campbell. 

"  Fortune,  friends,  kindred,  home,  —  all  were  gone." — PrescoU. 
"  This  s]>irit  of  knhjlu-errantry  might  lead  us  to  undervalue  hia 
talents  a,s  a  general*  and  to  regard  himf  merelj  in  the  light  of  a 
lucky  adventurer."  —  Ibid. 

"  There  leviathan, 
Ilugest  of  living  creatures,  on  the  deep 
Stretched  like  a  promontory,  sleeps  or  swims, 
And  seems  a  moving  land."  —  Milton. 
*•  But  now  the  door  is  opened  soft  and  slow:'  —  Prof.  Wilson. 
"  AVe  all  of  us  feel,  that  virtue  is  not  something  adopted  from  ne- 
cessity."—  Channiiig. 

"  Sir  William  Berkley  was  elected  governor."  —  Bancroft. 
"I  have  little  doubt,  but  that  the  contempt  ivith  wliich  a  plough- 
man  would  look  down  upon  me  for  not  knowing  oats  from  barley, 
would  transcend  thai  of  an  astronomer  at  my  not  being  able  to  dis' 
tinguish  between  Cassiopeia  and  Ursa  Major."  —  Prof  Wilson. 

"  No  farther  steps  for  procuring  his  release  wore  taken  at  this  time ; 
either  because  the  means  for  defraying  the  legal  expenses  could  not 
be  raised ;  or,  lohich  is  quite  as  probable,  because  it  was  certaiti  that 
Bun}an,  thinking  himself  in  conscience  bound  to  preach  in  defiance 
of  the  law,  would  soon  have  made  his  case  worse  than  it  tJien  was."— 
Soulhey. 

"  This  court  Avas  composed  of  three  officers,  than  %vliom  none  are 
more  distinguished  in  our  naval  service."  —  N.  A.  Revieio. 

"  Of  what  immense  benefit  had  it  been  to  England  in  all  subse- 
quent ages,  if  her  Elizabethan  era  had  been  a  Christian  era;  if  the 
gi-eat  men  who  then  toiled  in  the  fields  of  knowledge,  had  all  been 
Boyles  and  Miltons:' — B.  B.  Edwards. 

"  If  Christianity  may  be  said  to  have  given  a  permanent  elevation 
to  iconian  as  an  Intellectual  and  moral  being  ;  it  is  as  true,  that  the 
prcjent  age,  above  all  others,  has  given  play  to  her  genius,  and 
taught  us  to  reverence  its  influence."  —  Story. 

"  The  private  wars  of  the  nobles  ivith  each  other,  ivere  this, first  cir- 


*  See  Rule  2,  Kem.  7  t  Cortes. 

9 


194 


SYNTAX. 


cumslance  wlilch  renewed  tlie  coura<2;e  and  ievived  the  t-ncrfv  oi 
the  feudal  barons." — Alison. 

"  To  be  <\.  foreigner*  was  always  in  England  a  rciison  of  dislike.' 
—  Johnson. 

"  The  mind  courses  to  and  fro  through  the  past,  and  casts  ilsdj 
into  the  future." — Am.  Quart.  Review. 

"  The  rill  is  tuneless  to  his  ear  toho  feels 
No  hai-mony  within  ;  the  south  wind  steals 
As  silent  as  unseen,  amongst  the  leaves. 
Who  has  no  inward  beauty,  none  perceives, 
Though  all  around  is  beautiful." — Dana. 

''•  Nii-e  times  the  space  that  measures  day  and  night 
To  mortal  men,  he  with  his  horrid  crew 
Lay  vanauished'^  —  Milton. 


*  See  Kule  4,  Eem.  2. 


j'CNCTCATION,  195 

PUNCTUATION. 
§  253.  Punctuation  treats   of  the  points  or  marks  in- 
serted in  written  composition,  for  tiie  purpose  of  showing 
more  clearly  the  sense  uitended  to  be  convejed,  and  the 
pauses  required  in  reading. 

§  254.  The  principal  points  or  marks  employed  in  punc- 
tuation, are  the  comma  (  ,  ),  the  semicolon  (  ;  ),  the  colon 
(  :  ),  the  period  (  .  ),  the  note  of  interrogation  (  ?  ),  the 
note  of  exclamation  ( !  ),  and  the  dash  ( — ). 

Rem.  I.  —  Tlie  comma  requires  a  momeutaiy  pause ;  the  semico- 
•on,  a  pause  somewhat  longer  than  the  comma;  the  colon,  a  pause 
somewhat  longer  than  the  semicolon  ;  and  the  period,  a  full  stop 
The  note  of  intewogation,  or  the  note  of  exclamation,  may  take  the 
place  of  any  of  these,  and  accordingly  requires  a  pause  of  the  same 
iength  as  the  point  for  which  it  is  substituted. 

Rkm.  2. —  The  duration  of  these  pauses  depends  on  the  character  of 
the  composition  ;  the  grave  style  requiring  much  longer  intervals  thaa 
the  lively  or  impassioned. 

§  255.  The  sense  of  a  passage  often  requires  a  pause  in  reading, 
where  usage  does  not  allow  the  insertion  of  a  point  in  writing ;  as, 
"  He  woke  |  to  die  ;  "  —  "  Our  schemes  of  thought  in  childhood  J 
are  lost  in  those  of  youth."  On  the  other  hand,  points  are  some- 
times inserted  merely  to  indicate  the  syntactical  construction,  with- 
out refjtiiring  the  suspension  of  the  voice  in  reading ;  as  in  the 
phrase,  "  No,  Sir." 

§256.  —  The  Comma. 

Rule  1.  —  "\Mien  a  relative  and  its  antecedent  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  one  or  more  words,  a  coumia  should  generally 
be  inserted  before  the  relative  ;  as,  "  Think  not  77ian  was  made  in 
vain,  who  has  such  an  eternity  reserved  for  him."  —  Spectator. 

Of  what  does  punctuation  treat  f  Wliat  are  the  marks  chiefly  employ- 
ed in  punctuation  ?  ]VhiU  pauses  do  they  severally  r&juire  ?  What  de- 
parture from  the  grammatical  pmtctualion  of  a  sentence  is  often  required  in 
readily  ?     Examples. 


196  SYNTAX. 

♦  TliPre  is  a  pleasure  in  poetic  pains, 
Which  only  poets  know."  —  Coivper. 

Rule  2.  —  "V\Tien  two  or  more  words  come  between  the  adjective 
and  its  noun,  a  comma  is  placed  after  the  intervening  words ;  as, 
"  To  dispel  these  errors,  and  to  give  a  scope  to  navigation,  equal  to 
the  grandeur  of  his  designs.  Prince  Henry  called  in  the  aid  of  sci- 
ence." —  Irving. 

KuLE  3.  —  When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  consists  of  several 
nominatives,  or  of  a  single  nominative  followed  by  an  adjunct  con- 
sisting of  several  words,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  before  the  fol- 
lowing verb. 

Examples  :  — "  The  effect  of  this  uuiversrl  diffusion  of  gay  and  splcn 
did  light,    was   to  render  the  preponderating   deep   green  moro 
solemn."  —  Dwight. 

"  The  golden  sun, 
The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven, 
Are  shinirig  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death." 

Rule  4.  —  When  a  sentence  or  clause  is  used  as  the  nominative 
to  a  preceding  or  following  verb,  it  should  be  separated  from  tlie 
verb  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  how  dearly  it  remembered  the  parent  island, 
is  told  by  the  English  names  of  its  towns."  —  Bancroft. 

Rule  5.  —  Two  successive  words  in  the  same  construction,  with 

out  a  conjunction  expressed,  are  generally  separated  by  a  comma  •, 

its,,  "  An  aged^  venerable  man." 

"  Has  Nature,  in  her  calm,  majestic  march, 
Faltered  with  age  at  last?  " —  Bryant. 

Rem.  1.  —  An  apparent  exception  to  this  rule  often  occurs  in  the  case 
of  two  successive  adjectives ;  as  in  the  expression,  "  A  veneiahle  old 
man."  But  the  two  adjectives,  in  this  example,  are  not  in  the  same  con- 
struction, since  old  qualifies  man,  while  venerable  qualifies  the  phrase  old 
man. 

Rem.  2. — A  comma  may  also  be  inserted  before  a  conjunction  ex- 
pressed, if  either  of  the  words  connected  is  followed  by  an  adjunct  consist- 
ing of  several  words;  as,  "Intemperance  destroys  the  vigorof  our  bodies, 
and  the  strengh  of  om-  minds." 

Rule  6.  —  Three  or  more  distinct,  successive  words  in  the  same 

[The  teacher  may  repeat  an  example  under  each  of  the  rules  for  the 
use  of  the  several  points,  and  require  the  pupil  to  give  the  rule  that 
applies  to  it.  Pupils  should  also  be  required  to  select  examples  from 
other  works,  illustrating  all  the  rules  of  punctuation.] 


PUNCTUATION.  197 

construcfjon,  with  or  witLout  a  conjunction   expressed,   should   be 

separated  by  commas ;  as, 

"  Beside  the  bed. where  parting  life  was  laid, 
And  sorrow,  guilt,  and  pain,  by  turns  dismayed. 
The  reverend  champion  stood." —  Goldsmith. 

"  How  poor,  how  rich,  bow  abject,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful,  is  man!  "  —  Young. 

Rem.  —  The  same  ajiparent  exception   occurs  in  this  rule  as  m  the 
la.vt.     In  the  expression,  "A  light  bluish  green  tint,"  bluish  modifies  g^-een, 
and  light  modifies  the  plirase  bluish  green;  while  the  three  words  liglit  Uu 
ish  green,  taken  together,  qualify  tint. 

Rule  7;  —  Successive  pairs  of  words  should  be  separated  from 
each  other  by  commas,  as,  "  The  authority  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
of  Zeiio  and  Epicurus,  still  reigned  in  the  schools." 

Rule  8.  —  When  the  different  members  of  a  compound  sentence 

contain  distinct  propositions,  they  are  generally  separated  from  each 

other  by  commas. 

Examples :  —  "  They  shrunk  from  no  dangers,  and  they  feared  no 
hardships."  —  Story.  "And  thus  their  physical  science  became 
magic,  their  astronomy  became  astrology,  the  study  of  the  com- 
position of  bodies  became  alchemy,  mathematics  became  the  con- 
templation of  the  spiritual  relations  of  number  and  figure,  and 
philosophy  became  theosophy."  —  W/iewell. 

Rule  9.  —  When  the  different  members  of  a  sentence  express  a 

mutual  comparison,  contra.st,  or  opposition,  they  should  generally  be 

separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Examples: — "The  more  I  reflected  upon  it,  themoreimportant.it 
appeared."  —  Goldsmith.  "  The  quaker  revered  principles,  not 
men;  truth,  not  power."  —  Bancroft.  "  As  the  heart  panteth  after 
the  water  brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  after  Thee." — Ps.  42:  1. 

Rule  10.  —  To  prevent  ambiguity  in  cases  of  elflpsis,  a  comma 

13  sometfmes  inserted  In  the  place  of  the  woru  or  phrase  omitted. 

Example :  —  "As  a  companion,  he   was  severe  and  satirical ;  as  a 
friend,  cajnious  and  dangerous ;  in  his  domestic  sphere,  harsh,  jeal 
ous,  and  irascible." 

Rule  11.  —  "When  two  or  more  successive   clauses  end  with 

words  sustaining  a  common  relation  to  some  word   in  the  following 

clause,  a  comma  should  generally  be  Inserted  after  each. 

Examples:  —  "  The  truest  mode  of  enlarging  our  benevolence,  is  not 
to  quicken  our  sensibility  towards  great  masses,  or  wide-spread 
evils,  but  to  approach,  comprehend,  sympathize  with,  and  act  upon, 
a  continually  increasing  number  of  individuals." —  Channing. 
"  Such  compulsion  is  not  merely  incompatible  %nth,  but  impossible 
in.  a  free  or  elective  government."  —  H.  Mann. 


198  SYNTAX. 

Hem.  —  When,  Lowever,  the  woiii  in  the  following  clause,  is  not  ac- 
companied by  several  words,  the  comma  before  it  is  often  omitted ;  as, 
"  We  may,  and  often  do  employ  these  means." 

Rule  12.  —  When  several  -words  intervene  between  the  verb  of 
a  principal  clause  and  the  commencement  of  a  subordinate  clause, 
the  clauses  should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  conmia ;  as 
"  Had  we  stopped  here,  it  might  have  done  well  enough."  —  "  He 
was  nineteen  years  of  age,  when  he  bade  adieu  to  bis  native  shores." 
— PrescoU. 

Rule  13. — Wben  the  connection  of  a  sentence  is  interrupted 

by  one  or  more  words,   not  closely  related  in  construction   to   what 

precedes,  a  conuna  should  generally  be  inserted  both  before  and 

after  the  word  or  words  introduced ;  as, 

"  lie,  like  the  world,  his  ready  '^'isit  pays 
Where  fortune  smiles."  — Yming. 

Rule  14.  —  The  independent  case,  and  the  infinitive  absolute, 
with  their  adjuncts,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  commas. 

Examples :  —  "  To  foster  industry,  to  promote  union,  to  cherish  re. 
ligious  peace, — these  were  the  honest  purposes  of  Lord  Baltimore 
during  his  long  supremacy." — Bancroft.  "  The  ])la_vwriters,  where 
are  they  1  and  the  poets,  are  their  tires  extinguished  "? " —  II.  More. 
"  Wept  o'er  his  wounds,  or,  tales  of  sorrow  done, 
Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were  won." 

Goldsmith. 
**  Rejoice,  you  men  of  Angiers,  ring  your  bells  !"  — Shukspe-ire. 

Rule  15.  —  W'hen  either  of  two  words  in  apposition  is  accom- 
panied by  an  adjunct,  the  latter  of  them,  with  the  words  dej»ending 
upon  it,  should  be  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  ; 
as,  "  The  following  is  a  dialogue  between  Socrates,  the  great  Athe- 
nian philosopher,  and  one  Glaucon,  a  private  man." 

Rule  16.  —  "WTien  a  word  or  phi-ase  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  both  before  and  sifler  it ;  as, 
"  Here,  and  here  only,  lies  the  democratic  character  of  the  revolu- 
tion." —  Bancroft. 

"  Where  are  the  flowers,  the  fair  young  flowers,  that  lately  sprang  and 
stood, 
Tn  brighter  light,  and  softer  airs,  a  beauteous  sisterhood  !" — Bryant. 

Note.  —  When  the  word  or  words  to  be  set  off  according  to  the  three 
preceding  rules,  stand  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  sentence,  one  of  the 
commas  is  of  course  unnecessary. 


punctuation.  199 

§  257. — The  Semicolon. 

Ktjl^  1, — TVLen  a  sentence  which  is  complete  in  construction, 
IS  followed  by  a  clause  containing  a  reason,  an  explanation,  an  in- 
ference, or  a  contrast,  the  latter  clause  should  generally  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  semicolon ;  as,  "  The  past  seems  to  promise  it;  but  the 
fulfilment  depends  on  the  fiiture."  —  "  To  the  latter  it  is  a  double 
advantage  ;  for  It  diminishes  their  pain  here,  and  rewards  them 
with  heavenly  bliss  hereafter."  —  Goldsmith. 

B.ULE  2.  —  "When  several  successive  clauses  have  a  common  con- 
nection with  a  preceding  or  following  clause,  a  semicolon  is  general- 
ly inserted  after  each. 

Examples : — "  Children,  as  they  gamboled  on  the  beach ;  reapers,  as 
they  gathered  the  harvest;  iriowers,  as  they  rested  upon  the 
scythe  ;  mothers,  as  they  busied  themselves  about  the  household  ; 
—  were  victims  to  an  enemy  who  disappeared  the  moment  a  blow 
was  struck,  and  who  was  ever  present  where  a  garrison  or  a  family 
ceased  its  vigilance."  —  Banaoft.  '•  Reason  as  we  may,  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  read,  in  such  a  fate,  much  that  we  know  not  how 
to  interpret;  much  of  provocation  to  cruel  deeds  and  deep  resent- 
ment; much  of  apology  for  wrong  and  pei-fidy;  much  of  doubt 
and  misgiving  as  to  the  past;  much  of  painful  recollections; 
much  of  dark  forebodings." — Story. 

Rule  3.  —  When  several  particulars  are  enumerated  in  a  sen- 
tence, some  of  which  are  expressed  in  several  words,  they  are  often 
separated  from  each  other  by  semicolons;  as,  "  The  Aragonese  cor- 
tes  was  composed  of  four  branches  or  arms ;  the  ricos  hovibres,  or 
great  barons ;  the  lesser  nobles,  comprehending  the  knights ;  the 
clergy  ;  and  the  commons."  —  Prescott. 

EuLE  4.  —  Two  or  more  successive  short    sentences  having  no 

cnnamon  dependence,  are  often  separated  by  semicolons  instead  of 

periods. 

Example :  —  "  As  we  have  already  noticed,  its  bruised  leaves  afforded 
a  paste  from  which  paper  was  manufactured ;  its  juice  was  formed 
into  an  intoxicating  beverage,  pulque,  of  which  the  natives  to  this 
dav,  are  excessively  fond ;  its  leaves  supplied  an  impenetrable 
thatch  for  the  more  humble  dwellings ;  thread  of  which  coarse 
stuffs  were  made,  and  strong  cords,  were  drawn  from  its  tough 
and  twisted  fibres ;  pins  and  needles  were  made  of  the  thorns  at 
the  extremity  of  its  leaves ;  and  the  root,  when  properly  cooked, 
was  converted  into  a  palatable  and  nutritous  food."  —  PiescoU. 

The  Colon. 
§  258.  The  colon  is   at  present  much  less  used  than  formerly  \ 


200  SYNTAX. 

its  place  being  often  supplied  by  the  period,  the  semicolon,  or  the 

dash.     There   are,    however,   many  cases  in  which  no  other  point 

can  with  propriety  be    substituted.     The    following   examples  will 

give  an  idea  of  the  circumstances  under  which   the   colon   is   most 

frequently  employed  :  — 

"  The  grant  was  absoluto  and  eKclusive :  it  conceded  the  land  and 
islands  ;  the  rivers  and  the  harbors  ;  the  mines  and  the  fisheries."  —  Ban- 
croft. 

"  There  is  only  one  cause  for  the  want  of  great  men  in  any  period- 
nature  does  not  think  fit  to  produce  tliem."  —  Ilallam. 

"  Johnson  puts  the  case  thus  :  The  Historian  tells  either  what  is  false 
or  what  is  true.  In  the  former  case  lie  is  no  historian.  In  the  latter,  lie 
has  no  ojiportunity  for  displaying  his  abilities."  —  Macau/ay. 

"  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  survivors,  four  of  whom  were 
seated  on  the  platform  from  which  this  address  was  spoken  :  —  Dr.  Jo- 
seph Fiske,  Messrs.  Daniel  Alason,  Benjamin  Locke,  William  Munroe," 
etc.  —  £.  Everett. 

"  In  Num.  14 :  33,  it  is  predicted,  that  Israel  shall  wander  in  the  wilder 
ness  forty  years."  —  Biblical  Rejmsitory. 

"  The  works  of  Wm.  E.  Channing,  D.D.,  with  an  Introduction.  Boa 
ton:  James  Munroe  and  Company." 

The  Period. 

§  259.  The  period  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  complete  sentence. 

Rem. — A  period  is  sometimes  inserted  between  two  complete  senten- 
ces, which  are  connected  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  By  degrees  the  confi- 
dence  of  the  natives  was  exhausted  ;  tliey  had  welcomed  powerful  guests, 
who  had  promised  to  become  their  benefactors,  and  who  now  robbed  their 
humble  granaries.  But  the  worst  evil  in  the  new  settlement  was  the 
character  of  the  emigrants."  —  Bancroft. 

The  period  should  be  used  after  all  abbreviations  ;  as,  "  Mass.," 
"  N.  Y.,"  "  M.  D.,"  "  Aug.,"  "  Esq.,"  "  [Mrs.,"  "  Mr."  Such  expres- 
slons  as  1st,  3d,  lOih,  i's,  9's,  4to,  Svo,  12??io,  do  not  require  the  period 
after  them",  since  they  are  not  strictly  abbreviations,  the  figures 
suppl}ing  the  place  of  the  first  letters  of  the  words. 

The  Dash. 

§  260.   Th3  dash  Is  used  where   a   sentence   is  left   unfinished, 

where  there  is  a  sudden  turn,  or  an  abrupt  transition  ;  and   where 

a  significant  pause  is  required. 

Examples:  —  "Let  the  government  do  this  —  the  people  will  do  lie 
rest."  —  Maaxulay. 

"  Ah.  that  maternalsmile  !  it  answers  —  Yes."  — Cowpet. 


PLSCTUATION. 


i»01 


"  He  SI vffered, — ^but  his  pangs  are  o'er ; 
Enjoyed, — but  his  delights  are  fled ; 
Had  friends, — his  friends  arc  now  no  more ; 
And  foes, — his  foes  are  dead." — Montijoinery. 
Rem  —Modern  writers  often  employ  dashes  in  place  of  the  parentheeia 

The  Note  of  Interrogation. 
§  2G1.  The  note  of  interrogation  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence in  whicii  a  question  is  asked ;  as,  "  What  is  to  be  done  ?" 

The  ISTote  of  Exclasl\tion. 
§  262.  The  note  of  exclamation  is  used  after  expressions  of  sud- 
den emotion  or  passion,  and  after  solemn  invocations  and  addresses ; 

"  Liberty  I     Freedom  I     Tyranny  is  dead : 

Eun  hence,  procUum,  cry  it  about  the  streets  f — Sftxxhspeare. 
"Hail,  holy  light!  offspring  of  heaven  fii-st-bornl" — Milton. 

Rem  —When  the  interjection  Oh  is  used,  the  point  is  generally  placed 
uumedji^tely  after  it;  but  when  0  is  employed,  the  pomt  is  placed  alter 
one  or  more  intervening  words ;  as, 

"  Oh  I  my  offence  is  rank,  it  smells  to  heaven !" — Shakspeare. 
"  But  thou,  0  Hope !  with  eyes  so  fair, — 
What  was  thy  delighted  measure?" — Collins. 

The  following  characters  are  also  employed  in  Comiiosition  .•- 
§  263.  The  parenthesis  (  )  generally  includes  a  word,  phiase,  or 
remark,  which  is  merely  incidental  or  explanatory,  and  which  might 
be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  grammatical  construction ;  as, 

"  The  tuneful  Nine  (so  sacred  legends  tell) 

Fu-st  waked  their  heavenly  lyre  these  scenes  to  tell!" — CampbeU. 
"  Kbov/  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Yirtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 
B,BM. — The  parenthesis  is  now  employed  less  freiiuently  tlirui  formerly ; 
commas  or  dashes  bemg  used  to  supply  ils  place;  as,  "The  colonists:— 
Buch  is  hunau  natm-e — deshed  to  bm'u  the  town  in  which  they  had  been 
so  wretched." — Bancroft. 

§264.  Brachets  []  are  used  to  enclose  a  word.  I'uiuc    :<  re- 
.  mark,  which  is  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  explanation  or  coiTec- 
tion;  as  "Putting  oflf  the  courtier,  he  [the  king]  now  puts  on  the 
philosopher." 

Rem. — The  parenthesis  is  often  used  to  supply  the  place  of  brackets, 
aad  brackets  are  occasionally  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  parenthesis 

The  paieiitltesis.     Examples.     Brackets.     Examples. 


202 


SYNTAX. 


§  265.  The  apostrophe  ('^  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  one  oi 
more  letters;  a;?,  oVr,  tho".  It  is  likewise  the  sign  of  the  possessive 
case,  being  used  instead  of  a  letter  which  was  formerly  inserted  in 
its  place;  as,  juaii's  for  manes  or  manis. 

§  26G.  Marks  of  quotation  ("  ")  are  used  to  indicate  that  the  ex- 
act words  of  another  a);e  introduced ;  as,  "  In  my  lii-st  parliament," 
said  James,  "  I  was  a  novice." 

Rem. — When  a  quotation  is  introduced  within  a  quotation,  it  is  usually 
distini^uished  by  siu^jle  inverted  commas  ;  as,  "  I  w;is  not  only  a  ship-boy 
on  the  '  high  and  giddy  mast,'  but  also  in  the  cabin  where  every  menial 
office  fell  to  my  lot."  If  both  quotations  commence  or  terminate  togeth- 
er, this  commeuceraeut  or  termination  is  indicated  by  the  use  of  three 
commas ;  as,  "  In  the  course  of  this  polite  attention,  he  pointed  in  a  cer- 
tiiin  direction  and  exclaimed,  'That  is  Mr.  Sherman  of  Connecticut;  a 
man  who  never  said  a  foolish  thing  in  his  life.'  " 

When  a  point  i-s  inserted  immediately  after  a  quotation,  it  should  be 
placed  within  the  quotation  marks. 

§  267.  A  small  dash  (")  is  sometimes  placed  over  a  vowel  to  de- 
note that  it  is  long ;  as,  noble.  A  breve  ("),  placed  over  a  vowel, 
shows  that  it  is  short ;  as,  respite. 

§  268.  A  mark  of  accent  (')  is  sometimes  placed  over  a  syllable  to  de- 
note that  it  requhes  particular  stress  in  pronunciation ;  as,  ddbig. 

§  269.  A  diceresis  (")  is  sometimes  placed  over  the  latter  of  two 
successive  vowels  to  show  that  they  do  not  form  a  dijjhthong  ;  as,  co- 
operate. 

§  270.  The  cedilla  (,)  is  a  mark  which  is  sometimes  placed  under 
the  letter  c  to  show  that  it  has  the  sound  of  s  ;  as  in  "  fa9ade." 

§  271.  The  asterisk  (^),  the  obelisk  (f),the  double  ddtjger  (X)i 
hviii  parallels  (||),  as  well  as  letters  and  figures,  are  employed  in  re- 
ferring to  notes  in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

§  272.  The  ellipsis  (*  *  *)  or  ( )  is  used  to  denote  the  omis- 
sion of  some  letters  or  words ;  as,  "  H  *  *  *  y  M  *  *  *  *  *  1," 
"  C s  K g."     See  also  an  example  in  the  note  on  p.  151. 

o  orro    T'l-      7  ( is  used  to  connect  words  which  have  a  coni- 

S  27.3.  The    brace   4  ,.     .. 

•>  ^  nion  application. 

The-  apostrophe.  Examples.  Maries  of  quotation-  Examples.  How  art 
tang  vowels  distmiuished ?  —  short  vowels?  Tlie  diaresis.  The  asterisk, 
tlielisk,  etc.    ^larks  of  ellipsis.    Examples.     The  brace.    Examples, 


PDNCTUATION.  203 

§  '2li.  The  caret  (a)  is  employed  in  wiiting,  to  show  that   some 

word  or  letter  has  been  omitted  ;  as,  "  Washingtoa  uuilbrmly  treat- 

aiid 
ed  Mr.  Shei-mau  with  grea'  nispect  a  attention. " 

§  27d.  The  hyphen  (-)  is  used  after  a  part  of  a  word  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  to  show  that  the  remainder  is  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  line ;  and  to  connect  the  simple  parts  of  a  compound  word, 
as,  aU-absorhlng. 

Note. — In  dividing  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  the  break  should 
alwaj's  be  made  between  two  syllables,  and  not  between  diiferent 
letters  of  the  same  syllable.     See  §  37. 

§  27 G.  The  mdex  (1^)  refers  to  some  remarkable  passage. 

§  277.  The  section  (§)  is  used  to  distinguish  the  parts  into  which 
a  work  or  a  portion  of  a  work  is  divided. 

§  278.  Tha  paragraph  (^)  is  used  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments to  denote  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject.  In  other  books 
paragraphs  are  distinguished  by  commencing  a  new  line  farther 
from  the  margin  than  tlie  beginning  of  the  other  lines.  This  ia 
called  indenting. 

[For  exercises  in  punctuation,  the  teacher  may  write  on  a  blackboard 
some  portion  of  a  well  pointed  book  or  other  piece  of  wTiting,  omitting 
all  tlie  points  ;  and  then  require  the  pupil  to  transcribe  and  punctuate  it. 
Wiicn  this  is  done,  the  several  copies  may  be  compared  and  corrected. 
The  teacher  may  also  read  one  or  more  paragraphs  aloud,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  write  and  punctuate  what  is  read,  without  seeing  the  printed 
copy.  Exercises  of  this  description  should  be  repeated  till  the  pupils  be- 
come ftimiliar  with  all  the  common  principles  of  punctuation.  Pupils 
should  also  be  required  to  devote  careful  attention  to  this  subject,  in  con 
nection  with  their  ordinary  exercises  in  composition.] 

The  card.  Examples.  The  hyphen.  Examples.  Dioisixm  of  a  tvord  at 
the  end  of  a  line.  The  index.  Examples.  The  section.  ExamjUst.  Tha 
paroffrajih,     Exampki. 


PART  IV. 


PROSODY. 

§  279.  Prosody  treats  of  accent,  quantity,  and   the 

laws  of  versification,* 

§  280.  Accent  is  the  stress  which  is  laid  on  one  or  more  syllables 

of  a  word,  in  pronunciation  ;  as,  re2;erberate,  undertake. 

The  term  accent  is  also  applied,  in  poetry,  to  the  stress  laid  on  mono- 
syllabic words  ;  as, 

"  Content  is  wealth,  the  riches  of  the  mind."  —  Dryden. 

§  281.  The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  relative  time  occupied  in 
its  pronunciation.  A  syllable  may  be  long  in  quantity,  as  fate  ;  or 
short,  as  let.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  based  their  poetry  on  the 
quantity  of  syllables  ;  but  modern  versification  depends  chiefly  upon 
accent,  the  quantity  of  syllables  being  almost  wholly  disregarded. 

§  282.  A  pause  is  a  brief  suspension  of  the  voice  in  reading  or 
speaking. 

There  are  two  pauses  which  are  peculiar  to  poetry  ;  —  the  ccesural 
and  the  Jinal.  The  ccesui'a  is  a  pause  which  is  introduced  into  a 
line  to  render  the  versification  more  melodious  ;  as, 

"  Not  half  so  swift  |  the  ti-embling  doves  can  fly." 

"  Thrones  and  imperial  jx)wers,  |  offsjDring  of  heaven." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  caesmal  pause  generally  occurs  after  the  fourth,  fifth,  or 
sixth  syllable ;  but  it  occasionally  takes  place  after  the  third  or  the 
seventh. 

Rem.  2.  —  When  the  cresura  occurs  after  the  fourth  syllable,  the  verse  ie 
lively  and  spirited ;  as, 

"  Her  lively  looks  |  a  sprightly  mind  disclose,  ^ 

Quick  as  her  eyes  |  and  as  unfixed  as  those." 

Of  what  does  prosody  treat  ?  What  is  accent  ?  Examples.  Wliat  is 
laid  of  quantity  ?  What  is  a  pause?  What  pauses  are  peculiar  to  poetry  f 
Crive  an  account  of  each.     Examples. 

*  Emphasis,  Tone,  Fitch, and  Inflection,  which  are  often  treated  of  vmdei 
the  head  of  Prosody,  belong  more  properly  to  Elocution. 


VKRSIFICATION.  205 

RiiM.  3.  —  When  the  cossura  occurs  aher  the  Jifth  syllable,  the  verse 
loses  its  brisk  and  lively  air,  and  becomes  more  smooth,  gentle,  and  flow- 
ing; as, 

"  Eternal  sunshine  |  of  tlie  spotless  mind. 
Each  prayer  accepted  ]  and  each  wish  resigned." 
Rem.  4.  —  When  the  csesura  occurs  after  the  sixth  syllable,  the  verse 
becomes  more  solemn  and  its  measure  more  stately  ;  as, 
"  The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son,  |  the  direful  spring 
Of  all  the  Grecian  woes,  j  0  Goddess,  sing." 

The  final  pause  is  tl^t  which  occurs- at  the  end  of  a  line. 
In  reading  poetry,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  final 
and  caBsural  pauses. 


VERSIFICATION. 

§  283.  Versification  is  a  measured  arrangement  of  words,  in  which 
the  accent  is  made  to  recur  at  certain  regidar-intervals. 

Rem.  —  This  definition  applies  only  to  modern  verse.  In  Greek  and 
Latin  poetry,  it  is  the  regular  recurrence  of  long  syllables,  according  to 
settled  laws',  which  constitutes  verse. 

§  28-i.  —  There  are  two  kinds  of  verse ;  —  rhyme  and  blank  verse. 
Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  sounds  in  the  last  words  or  sylla- 
bles of  verses ;  *  as, 

"  Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride. 
And  even  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side." —  Goldsmith. 
Rem.  1.  — For  two  svllables  to  form  a  full  and  perfect  rhyme,  it  is  ne 
cessary  that  the  vowel  be  the  same  in  both  ;  that  the  parts  following  the 
vowel 'be  the  same  ;  that  the  parts  preceding  the  vowel  be  difierent ;  and 
that  the  syllables  be  accented.! 

Blank  verse  is  verse  -without  rhyme  ;  as,  ^ 

"  So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  balls  of  death. 
Thou  go  not,  like  the  quarry-slave,  at  night. 
Scourged  to  liis  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  the  grave. 
Like  one  that  draws  the  drapery  of  his  conch  • 

About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams."  —  Bryant. 


What  care  should  be  observed  in  reading  poetry  ?  What  is  vtfsification  f 
What  di^fferent  kinds  of  verse  are  there?  Define  rhyme.  Examples.  Defint 
blank  verse.     Examples. 

*  The  lines  of  poetry  are  properly  called  verses.  t  Latham. 


206  PROSODY. 

Rem.  2.  —  Blank  verse  possesses,  in  many  respects,  important  advan- 
tages over  rhyme.  It  allows  the  lines  to  run  into  one  another  wiih  ])('r- 
feet  freedom,  and  is  hence  adapted  to  subjecls  of  dignity  and  force,  which 
demand  more  free  and  manly  numbers  than  can  be  commanded  in  rhyme 
Eliyme,  on  the  other  hand,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  Jmportant  oniaiuent 
of  English  versification. 

Rem.  3.  —  Blank  verse  is  always  written  in  lines  of  ten  syllables 
Rhymed  verses  may  consist  of  any  number  of  syllables. 

§  285.  Afoot  is  a  rhytlimical  division  of  a  verse  ;  as, 

"  Our  thoughts  |  as-bound  ]  less,  and  |  our  souls  [  as  free." 

§  286.  A  couplet,  or  distich,  consists  of  two  verses  making  com- 
plete sense ;  as, 

"  Indulge  the  true  ambition  to  excel 
In  that  best  art,  —  the  art  of  living  well." 

§  287.  A  triplet  consists  of  three  verses  which  rhyme  together  ;  as, 

"  Of  many  things,  some  few  I  shall  explain, 
Teach  thee  to  shun  the  dangers  of  the  main, 
And  how  at  length  the  promised  land  to  gain."  — Drydm 

§  288.  Alliteration  is  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  let 
ter ;  as, 

"  The  Zord?y  lion  leaves  his  lonely  /air." 
"  FFeave  the  warp  and  wenve  the  wooV 

§  289.  A  stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  lines,  or  verses,  con 
Btituting  a  regular  division  of  a  poem. 

Rem.  —  In  popular  language,  stanzas  are  frequently  called  verses. 

§  290.  Scanning  is  the  resolving  of  verses  into  the  several  feet  of 
which  they  are  composed.. 

§  291.  The  principal  feet  used  in  English  poetry  are, — 

1.  The  /amJus,  which  consists  of  two  syllables;  the  first  unac 
cented,  and  the  second  accented ;  as,  con-tend. 

2.  The  Trochee,  which  consists  of  two  syllables  ;  the  first  accented, 
and  the  second  unaccented ;  as,  7i6-hle. 

.   3.  The  AnaiJest,  which  consists  of  three  syllables  ;  the  first  two 
unaccented,  and  the  last  accented  ;  as,  in-ter-cede. 

§  292.  The  following  feet  are  employed  less  frequently:  —  fl.)  The 
spondee,  which  consists  of  two  accented  syllables  ;  (2.)  the  pyrrhic,  which 
consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables ;  (3.")  the  dactijle,  consisting  of  three 

W}iai  is  afoot  ?  Examples.  What  is  a  couplet  ?  Examples.  Wliat  is 
a  triplet  f  Examples.  What  is  alliteratim  ?  Examples.  Define  a  stanza. 
What  is  scanning  1  What  kind  of  feet  are  principally  used  in  English 
poetry  ?     Exa>.nples  of  each. 


IAMBIC    VEESE. 


207 


syllables,  of  which  the  first  onlv  is  accented;  (4.)  the  amphibrach,  consist- 
ing of  three  syllables,  of  which  the  second  only  is  accented;  (5.)  the  tri- 
brach, consistiiig  of  three  unaccented  syllables. 

lainbic  Verse. 
§  293.  Iambic  verse  is   composed  of  iambic   feet,  and  has  the 
accent  on  the  even  syllables.     The  most  common  forms  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

1.  Four  iambuses,  or  eight  syllables  in  a  line  ;  as, 

"  And  may  |  at  last  |  my  wea  |  17  age 
Find  oiit  I  the  peace  |  "f ul  her  |  mit^e." 
Rem.  1.  —This  measure  is  sometimes  varied,  to  adapt  it  to  light  sub- 
jects, by  taking  an  additional  unaccented  syllable  ;  as, 
"  Or  if  I  it  be  I  thy  will  |  and  ple'as  .|  vre, 
Dhect  1  my  plough  |  to  find  ]  a  tre'as  \  ure." 
Eem.  2.  —  In  some  cases,  a  syllable  is  cut  off  from  the  first  foot ;  as, 
"Praise  \  to  God,  ]  immdr  |  tal  prtiise, 
For  I  the  love  |  that  crowns  |  our  days." 

2.  Five  iambuses,  or  ten  syllables  in  a  line  ;  as, 

"  For  me'  |  your  trib  |  uta  |  ry  stores  |  combijae." 
Eem.  1. —  This  is  usual! v  called  the  heroic  measure,  and  is  the  most  ele- 
vated and  dignified  kind  of  English  verse.     It  frequently  admits  of  some 
varietv,  particularly  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  line.     A  trochee  is 
sometimes  emijloyed  instead  of  an  iambus,  and  an  unaccented  syllable  ia 
occasionally  attached  to  the  last  foot ;  as, 
"  His  house  she  enters  ;  there  to  be  a  light 
Shining  within,  when  all  without  is  night ; — 
A  guar  I  dian-an  |  gel,  o'er  |  his  life  |  presid  |  ing. 
Doubling  |  his  pleas  |  ures,  and  ]  his  cares  divid  |  ing."  —  Rogers. 
Rem.  2.  —  A  verse  of  six  feet,  or  twelve  syllables,  called  an  Alejcandrine, 
is  occasionally  introduced  into  heroic  poetry,  especially  at  the  close  of  a 
passage ;  as, 

"  Time  wiites  no  wrinkle  on  thine  azure  brow :  — 
Such  as  I  Crea  |  tion's  dawn  ]  beheld,  |  thou  roll  |  est  now." 

Rem.  3.  —  Heroic  vei-se  may  be  written  either  vnth  or  without  rhyme. 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Thouison's  Seasons,  Cowper's  Task,  and  Pope's 
Translation  of  Homer,  are  examples  of  heroic  verse. 

Rem.  4.  — The  four  lined  stanzas  of  Psalmody  often  consist  of  alternate 
verses  of  four  and  three  feet ;  as, 

"  Thou  didst,  I  O  might  |  y  God !  |  exist 
Ere  time  |  began  |  its  race ; 
Before  |  the  am  |  pie  el  |  ements 
Fill'd  up  I  the  void  |  of  space." 

What  is  iambic  verse?     WhM  are  the  priiicijjal  form  of  iambic  vene  1 
Examples  of  each. 


208  pKDSODr. 

Rem.  5.  —  A  single  syllable  is  sometimes  added  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

for  the  sake  of  variety  ;  as, 

"  Waft,  waft,  I  ye  winds,  |  his  sto  |  ry ; 
And  you,  ye  waters  roll, 
Till  like  |  a  sea  |  of  glo  |  ry, 
It  spreads  from  pole  to  pole." 

§  204.  The  following  forms  of  iambic  verse  are  also  occasionally 

employed :  — 

(1.)  One  iambus,  -svith  an  additional  syllable ;  as, 

"  Consent  |  ing, 
Repent  |  j'n^." 

(2.)  Two  iambuses,  with  or  without  an  additional  syllable  ;  as, 

"  What  place  |  is  here  ! 
What  scenes  |  appear  !  " 

"  Upon  I  a  raoun  |  tuin, 
Beside  1  a  foun  |  to»i." 

(3.)  Three  iambuses,  with  or  without  an  additional  syllable ;  as, 
"  A  charge  |  to  keep  |  I  have, 
A  God  I  to  glo  I  rify." 

"  Our  heaits  |  no  long  |  er  Ian  |  yuisli." 


Trochaic  Verse. 

§295.  Trochaic  verse  is  composed  of  trochaic  feet,  and  has  the 
accent  on  the  odd  syllables.  The  principal  forms  of  Trochaic  verse 
are  the  folloTOng :  — 

1.  Three  trochees  in  a  line;  or  three  ti-ochees  and  an  'tdlltional 
syllable;  as, 

"  Wd  is  I  me',  Al  |  h^ma." 

"  Haste  thee,  |  Nymph,  and  |  bring  with  |  thee 
Jest,  and  |  youthful  |  JoUi  |  ty."  —  Milton. 

2.  Four  trochees  ;  as, 

"  Round  us  I  roars  the  |  tempest  |  loudqr." 

3.  Six  trochees ;  as, 

"  On  a  I  mountain  |  stretch'd  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow 
The  following  forms  are  sometimes  employed  :  — 
(1.)  One  trochee,  with  an  additional  syllable  ;  as, 

"Tumult  I  cease. 
Sink  to  I  peace." 

What  are  the  pincipalfonns  of  trochaic  verse  ?    Examples  of  each. 


ANAPESTIC    VERSE.  209 

» 
(2.)  Two  trochees ;  or  two  tvodiees,  with  an  adilltional  sylLiblc  ,  as. 
"  Wishes  1  rising, 
Tlioiiglits  sur  I  prising." 

"  Give  the  ]  vengeance  |  due 
To  the  I  valiant  \  crew." 

(3  )  Five  trochees  ;  as, 

"  Virtue's  1  bright'ning  ]  ray  shall  |  beam  for  ]  ever." 


Anapestic  Verse. 
§  290.   Anapestic  verse  has  the  accent  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  following  are  the  principal  forms :  — 

1.  Two  anapestic  feet;  or  two  anapests  and  an  unaccented  sylla- 

able;  as, 

"  They  renew  |  all  my  joys." 

"  For  no  arts  ]  could  avail  |  him." 

2.  Three  anapestic  feet ;  as, 

"  I  am  out  I  of  human  |  itv's  reach, 
I  must  fin  I  ish  my  jour  ]  ney  alone." —  Cowper. 

3.  Four  anapestic  feet ;  or  four  anapests  and  an  additional  sylla- 
ble; as, 

"  For  afield  |  of  the  dead  ]  rushes  red  |  on  my  sight; 
And  the  clans  |  of  Cullo  ]  den  are  scat  |  ter'd  in  fight." — Campbell. 

"  On  the  cold  |  cheek  of  death,  |  smiles  and  ro  |  ses  are 
blend  |  ing."  —  Beattie. 
Heji.  —  Iambic,  trochaic,  and  anapestic  feet,  admit  of  occasional  inter- 
mixture. 

Trochaic  and  Tamhic 
*  Tyrant  \  and  slave,  |  those  names  |  of  hate  ]  and  fe'ar." 

Tamhic  and  Anapestic. 
"  Ml/  i6r  I  rows  I  then  |  might  assuage." 

:  POBTIC   LICENSE. 

§  297.  Custom  has  given  sanction  to  certain  modes  of  expression 
in  poetrv,  which  are  not  conformable  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  gram- 
mar. The  foUo^ning  are  the  most  important  of  these  peculiar- 
ities :  — 

\\~  at  are  the  principal  forms  of  anapestic  verse  ?  Examples  of  each. 
What  peculiarities  of  expression  are  allowed  in  poetry.  Examples  of  each 
class. 


^10  PKOSODT, 

1.  Poetry  admits  of  many  antiquated  expressions  and  irregular 
forms  of  construct]  m  ;  as, 

"  Let  each,  as  likes  him  best,  his  hours  employ." 

"  Long  were  to  tell  what  I  have  seen." 

"  He  knew  to  sing  and  huild  the  lofty  rhj-me." 

2.  Many  words  sometimes  undergo  changes  in  spelling,  that  the 
number  of  syllables  may  be  made  greater  or  less ;  as,  'gan,  for  !)&■ 
gan  ;  e'er,  for  ever. 

3.  The  arrangement  of  words  frequently  departs  from  the  ordi 
nary  requirements  of  sjTitactical  rules  ;  as, 

"  In  saffron  robe  \vith  taper  clear."  —  Milton. 

"  No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets."  —  Gray. 

"  A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow."  —  Ibid. 

"  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed."  —  Ibid. 

"  Heaven  trembles,  roar  the  mountains,  thunders  all  tho 
/  ground." 

"  Thee,  chantress,  oft  the  vx)ods  a/nmig, 
I  woo,  to  hear  thy  even  song." —  Milton. 

4.  Adjectives  are  often  used  for  nouns  or  adverbs  ;  as, 

"  Gradual  sinks  the  breeze  into  a  perfect  calm." 

6.  The   conjunction   nor   is   often   used   for   neither,  and  or  for 

either;   as, 

"  To  them  nor  stores  nor  granaries  belong." 

"  He  riches  gave,  he  intellectual  strength, 
To  few,  and  therefore  none  commands  to  be 
Or  rich,  or  learned."  —  Pollok. 

9.  Intransitive  verbs  are  often  used  transitively ,  as, 
"  He  mourned  no  recreant  friend." 
"  Yet  not  for  thy  advice  or  threats,  J  fly 
These  wicked  tents  devoted."  —  Milton. 

7.  Poetry  admits  of  a  great  variety  of  elliptical  expressions ;  as, 

"  The  brink  of  [a]  haunted  stream." 

"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  [which]  can  charm  the  wise  1 " 

"  To  whom  thus  Adam  "  [spake.] 

[He]  "  Wlio  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows, 

Does  well,  acts  nobly, —  angels  could  [do]  no  more." — Young. 


APPENDIX. 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

§  208.  A  FIGURE  of  speech  is  a  departure  from  the  ordinary 
form  of  words,  from  their  regular  cojistruction,  or  from  their  htcniJ 
signijication. 

Departures  from  the  usual  form  of  words  are  called  ^(7«res  of 
Etymologij. 

Departures  from  the  regular  consti  uction  of  words  are  called  fg* 
ures  of  Syntax. 

Departures  from  the  literd  signification  of  words  are  called  fig- 
ures of  Rhetoric. 

Figures   of   Etymology. 
§  299.  The  figures  of  Etj-mology  are  AphcEresis,  Syncope,  Ap^ 
cope,  Prosthesis,  Paragdge,  Synoeresis,  IHceresis,  and  Tmesis. 

1.  Aphceresis  is  the  taking  of  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  begin- 

ninf'  of  a  word  ;   as,  'neath,  for  beneath ,  'gainst  for  against. 

"  But  his  courage  'yan  fail, 
For  no  arts  could  avail. " 

2.  Syncope  is  the  ehslon  of  one  or  nore  letters  from  the  middle 
of  a  word  ;  as,  lingering,  for  lingering  ;  lov'd  for  loved. 

3.  Apocope  Is  the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as,  thro'  for  through ;  th'  for  the. 

4.  Prosthesis  is  the  addition  of  one  or  more  letters  to  the  begin 
nine  of  a  word;  as,  beloved,  for  loved ;  enchiin  for  chain. 


Define  a  fiyiire  of  speech.  Wat  are  figures  of  Etymoloyy  1  —  of  Syntax  ?— 
of  EJietoric  ?  Define  Apha^esis.  Examples.  Syncope.  Examples.  Apocope 
Examples.    Prosthesis.    Eramples  . 


212  ATl'KNDTX. 

5.  Paragoge  is  i\\i  addi  lion  of  one  or  more  lettei-s  to  the  end  of  a 
woitl ;  as,  awaLe?!,  for  awake  ;  hounden.  for  hound. 

6.  Synccres'ix  is  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one;  as, 
alienate,  for  alienate,  learned,  for  learn-ed. 

7.  Diceresis  is  the  separation  of  two  vowels  standing  together,  so 
as  to  connect  them  with  diiferent  syllables  ;  as,  cooperate,  aerial. 

8.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a  compound  word  into  two  pnrts,  by 
introducing  another  word  between  them  ;  as,  "  Thy  thoughts 
wliich  are  to  us  ward,"  for  "  Thy  thoughts  which  are  toward  us;" 
— "  IIoxc  high  soever,"  for  '■'■  Hoivsoever  high." 

Figures   of   Syntax. 

§  800.  The  principal  figures  of  Syntax,  are  Ellipsis,  Pleonasm^ 
Endllage,  and  Ilyperhaton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  which  are  n«>'?e3- 
sary  to  complete  the  grammatical  construction.  The  following  ex- 
amples will  serve  to  illustrate  this  figure  :  — 

(1)  Nouns;  as,  "  St  Paul's"  [church]  ;  «  The  twelve  "  [apostles]. 

(2)  Adjectives ;  as,  "  Every  day  and  [every]  hour  ;"  "  A  gentle- 
man and  [a]  lady." 

(3)  Pronouns  ;  as,  "I  am  monarch  of  aU  [which]  I  survey;" — 
"  He  left  in  tlje  morning,  and  [he]  returned  the  same  day." 

(4)  Verbs ;  as,  "  to  whom  the  angel  "  [spoke]  ;  —  [Let]  "  No 
man  eat  fruit  of  thee." 

(5)  Adcerhs;  as,  "He  spoke  [wisely]  and  acted  wisely." 

(6)  Prepositions ;  as,  "  He  was  banished  [from]  England  ; " — 
"  He  lived  like  [to]  a  prince." 

(7)  Conjunctions  ;  as,  "I  came,  [and]  I  saw,  [and]  I  conquered." 

(8)  Phrases  and  entire  clauses ;  as,  "  The  day  has  been  consid- 
ered as  an  image  of  (he  year,  and  a  year  [has  been  considered]  as 
the  representation  of  life." — Johnson. 

Paragoge.     Examples.      Synoiresis.     Examples.      Diceresis.     Examples. 
Tmesis.     Examples.     WJiat  are  the  priucifxu  Jig^ires  of  Syntax?     Define 
Ellipsis.     Examples  of  the  omission  of  nouns  ;  —  adjectives ;  —  pronouns  ;  — 
verbs  :  —  adverbs  ; — prepositions ;  —  conjunctions.   Give  examples  ofthemiiis 
non  of  phrases  and  clauses.  , 


rJGL'ltL-e     OF    KIIKTOKIC.  213 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  iL^e  of  more  words  tx)  express  ideas,  tJian   are 

necessary  ;  as,    "  AVhat  we  have  seen  with  our  eyes,  and  heard  with 

our  ears." 

Rem.  —  The   repetition  of  a  conjunction  is  termed  Polysyndeton  ;  as, 
"  We  have  ships  and  men  and  moncj'  and  stores." 

3.  Enalluge  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  sjjeeeh  for  another ;  as^ 

"  Slow  rises  worth  by  poverty  depressed." 

4.  Hypej'haton  in  the  ti'anspositicn  of  words ;  as,  "  All  price  be 
yond,"  for  "  Beyond  all  price." 

Fifjures   cf  Rhetoric. 
§  301.  The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are   Simile,   Me'taphor, 
Allegory,  Antithesis,  Ilyperhole,  Irony,  Metonymy,  Synecdoche,  Per- 
sonification,   Ajjostrophe,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,   Vision,  and 
Climax. 

1.  A  Simile  is  a  direct  and  formal  comparison ;  as,  "  He  shall  be 
like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water." 

"As,  down  in  the  sunless  retreats  of  the  ocean, 
Sweet  tlowrets  are  springing,  no  mortal  can  see ; 

So,  deep  in  my  bosom,  the  praySr  of  devotion. 

Unheard  by  the  worhl,  rises  silent  to  thee."  —  Moore. 

2.  A  Afctaphor  is  an  implied  comparison ;  as,  "  What  are  the  sor- 
rows of  the  young  ?     Their  growing  luinds  soon  close  above  the 

WO  o  o 

wound." 

3.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor.  In  the  following  beauti- 
ful exiimple  found  in  the  80th  Psalm,  the  people  of  Israel  are  rej>- 
resented  under  the  symbol  of  a  vine  :  — 

"  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 
cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  tilled  the  land.  The  hills  were  covered 
with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedary. 
She  sent  out  her  boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branches  unto  the  river. 
"VVhy  hast  thou  then  broken  dowTi  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they  wliich 
pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it, 
and  the  wild  beast  of  the  tield  doth  devour  it." 

4.  An  Antithesis  is  an  expression  denoting  opposition  or  contrast; 
83,  "  The  Avicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth,  but  the  righteous  ai-e 
bold  as  a  lion." 

"  Tho'  deep,  yet  clear ;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull." 

2)efi,ne  Pleonasm.  Examples.  Enallage.  Examples.  Ilyperbatmi.  Ex 
a>nples.  Simile.  Examples.  Metaphor.  Examples  Alkgory  Exam^^es. 
J-ttithf.vs.     Examples. 


2U  API'EXDIX. 

5.  An  Hyjierbole  is  an  exaggeration  in  the  use  of  language,  rep- 
resenting objects  as  greater  or  less,  better  or  woi"se,  than  they  really 
are.  Thus,  David,  spejiking  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  says,  "  They 
are  swifter  than  eagles ;  they  were  sti"onger  than  lions." 

6.  Irony  is  a  mode  of  speech  expressing  a  sense  contrary  to  that 
which  the  speaker  or  writer  intends  to  convey.  The  prophet  Elijah 
employed  this  figure  when  he  said  to  the  priests  of  Baal :  "  Cry 
aloud,  for  he  is  a  god ;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is 
in  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleejjeth,  and  must  be  awaked." 

7.  Metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  one  thing  is  put  for  another ; 
as,  "  I  have  been  reading  M'dlon  ;  that  is,  his  poems  or  works.— 
"  Gray  hairs  [old  a^e]  should  be  respected." 

8.  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  by  which  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or 
a  part  for  the  whole ;  as,  "  Man  returneth  to  dust ;  "  that  is,  his 
body. — "  This  roof  \Jiouse'\  shall,be  his  protection." 

9.  Personification  or  Prosopopeia,  is  a  figure  by  which  we  attrib- 
ute life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects  ;  or  ascribe  to  irrational  an- 
imals and  objects  without  life,  the  actions  and  qualities  of  rational 
beings  ;  as,  "  The  ground  thirsts  for  rain." 

"  See,  Winter  comes,  to  rule  the  varied  year, 
Sidletx  and  sad\  with  all  his  rising  train."  —  Thomson. 

10.  Apostrophe  is  a  figure  by  which  a  speaker  or  writer  turns 
from  the  party  to  which  his  discourse  is  mainly  directed,  and  ad- 
dresses himself  to  some  person  or  thing  present,  or  absent ;  as, 
"  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  0  Death  !  where  is  thy  sting  f 
0  grave  !  ichere  is  thy  victory  f  "  —  .1  Cor.  15  :  54,  55. 

Rem.  —  In  modern  usage,  the  tenn  Apostrophe  is  applied  to  any  address 
made  to  an  inanimate  object,  an  uTational  animal,  or  an  at  sent  person ;  as, 
"Hail,  holy  light,  oft'spring  of  Heaven,  first-bom!" —  Milton. 

"  Sail  on,  thou  lone,  imperial  bird, 
Of  quenchless  eye  and  tireless  wing."  —  Mellen. 

"Alas !  my  noble  boy!  that  thou  shouldst  die ! 
Thou,  who  wert  made  so  beautifully  fair ! 
That  death  should  settle  in  thy  glorious  eye, 
And  leave  his  stillness  in  this  clustering  hair ! 
How  could  he  mark  thee  for  the  silent  tomb  ! 
My  proud  boy,  Absalom."  —  Willis. 

Hyperbole.  Examples.   Irony.  Examples.   Metonymy.  Examples.   Synec 
docke.    Examples.     Personification.    Examples.     Apostrophe.     Examj\les. 


riGURES    OF    RHETORIC.  215 

11.  Iiiterroyation  is  a  figure  by  -whicli  a  question  is  asked  for  the 
purpose  of  expressing  an  assertion  more  strongly ;  as,  "  Do  we  mean 
to  submit  to  the  measures  of  ParHament,  Boston  Port  Bill  and  all  ? 
Do  we  mean  to  submit,  and  consent  that  we  ourselves  shall  be  ground 
to  powder,  and  our  countrj'  and  its  rights  trodden  down  in  the 
dust  ?  I  know  we  do  not  mean  to  submit  ^Vn  never  shall  sub- 
mit"—  Websler. 

12.  Exclamaiion  is  a  figure  employed  to  express  some  strong  emo- 
tion ;  as, 

"  O  wretched  state  !  0  bosom,  black  as  death  ! "  —  Sliakspeare. 

"All !  how  unjust  to  nature  and  himself, 
Is  thoughtless,  thankless,  inconsistent  man ! "  —  Youmj. 

13.  Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  past  or  future  events 
are  represented  as  passing  before  our  eyes.  The  following  is  a 
beautiful  example  of  this  figure  :  — 

"  Methinks  I  see  it  now,  that  one  solitary,  adventurous  vessel,  the  May- 
flower of  a  forlorn  hope,  freighted  with  the"  prospects  of  a  future  state,  and 
bound  across  the  unknown  sea.  I  behold  it  pursuing,  wiih  a  thousand 
misgivings,  the  uncertain,  the  tedious  voyage.  Suns  rise  and  set,  and 
weeks  and  months  pass,  and  the  winter  surprises  them  on  the  deep,  but 
brings  them  not  the  sight  of  the  T\ished-for  shore.  I  see  them  now  scantily 
supplied  with  provisions,  crowded  almost  to  suffocation  in  their  ill-stored 
prison,  delaved  by  calms,  pursuing  a  circuitous  route  ;  —  and  now  driven 
in  furv  before  the  raging  tempest,  on  the  high  and  giddy  waves.  The 
awfulvoice  of  the  storm  howls  through  the  rigging.  The  laboring  masts 
Bcem  straining  froni^ their  base; — the  dismal  sound  of  the  pumps  is 
heard  ;  —  the  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  madly  from  billow  to  billow;  —  the 
ocean  breaks,  and  settles  with  engulfing  floods  over  the  floating  deck, 
and  beats  with  deadening  weight  against  the  staggered  vessel."  —  E. 
Everett. 

14.  Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  ideas  lise  or  sink  in  regular 
gradation  ;  as,  "'Giving  aU  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  Tirtue  ;  and 
to  virtue,  knowledge  ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance ;  and  to  tem- 
perance patience ;  and  to  patience,  godhness ;  and  to  godliness, 
brotherly  kindness  ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity."  —  2  Pet 
1:5  —  7.  "  AMiat  a  piece  of  work  is  man  !  how  noble  in  reason  .• 
how  infinite  in  faculties  !  in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  ad- 
mirable !  in  action,  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a 
god  ! "  —  Shakspeare. 

m ^^ 

Dejin^  InterrogaVon.  Examples.  Exclamaiion.  Examples,  i'ision 
Examples.     Climax.     Examples. 


INDEX. 


A,  peculiar  uses  of  this  letter,  159. 

Abstract  nouns,  37. 

Accent,  202,  204 

Adjectives,  14,  22,  51,  154. 

Adverbs,  19,  100,  178. 

Adverbial  phrases,  180. 

Adjuncts,  109. 

Agreement,  109,  163. 

All,  155,  179. 

Allegory,  213. 

Alliteration,  206. 

Alphabet,  26. 

Am.en,  179. 

Analysis,  110. 

Anapestie  verse,  206,  209. 

Antithesis,  213. 

Aphagresis,  211. 

Apocope,  211. 

Apostrophe,  202,  214. 

Apposition,  143,  184. 

Articles,  14,  53,  158. 

As,  184, 186. 

Asterisk,  obelisk,  etc.,  202. 

Auxilistfj'  verbs,  76. 

Blank  verse,  205. 
Both,  185. 
Brace,  203. 
Brackets,  201. 
But,  188. 


Capital  letters,  27. 

Caret,  20, 

Case,  47. 

Catalogue  of  grammars,  6. 

Cedilla,  202. 

Clauses,  classificatim  o^  120 

Climax,  215. 

Close  vowels,  32. 

Cognate  sounds,  33. 

Collective  nouns,  38, 164 

Colon,  199. 

Comma,  195. 

Common  and  proper  nouns,  3Y. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  54. 

Comparison  of  adverbs,  100. 

Composition,  exercises  in,  passvn. 

Compound  coujunctions,  182. 

Compound  prepositions,  187. 

Compound  words,  34. 

Conjugation  of  verbs,  76,  93. 

Conjunctions,  20,  23,  102,  181. 

Conjunctive  adverbs,  100,  181. 

Connection,  63,  100,  134,  181-186. 

Consonants,  31 

Corresponding  conjunctions,  182. 

Couplet,  206. 

Dash,  200. 

Declension  of  nouns,  50. 

Declension  of  pronouns,  69-61,  64. 


INDEX. 


^'ecdoche,  214. 
SyntsiX,  108. 

Tenses,  73,  ITS. 

Than,  183-186. 

Than  wJwm,  185. 

ITiat,  63,  64i  150,  182,  185. 

The7-e,  179. 

TTiis  and  that,  155. 

Thither,  179 

Thou,  60. 

Tmesis,  212. 

To  be,  81. 

To-day,  io-nighf,  etc.,  100. 

Triphthongs,  32. 

Triplet,  206. 

Trochaic  verse,  206,  208. 

Unipersonal  (impersonal)  verbs,  99. 


Verba,  15,  22,  66,  163. 
Tersification,  205. 
Vision,  215. 
.  Voice  of  verbs,  67,  68. 
Vowels,  31. 

We,  applied  to  one  person,  143. 

What,  64,  65,  151. 

Where,  179. 

Which,  63-65. 

Whither,  179. 

Who,  63,  64,  150. 

Whose,  possessive  of  which,  64,  150t 

With,  used  as  a~coimective,  165 

Words,  33.  . 

Worth,  102. 

Yes  and  no,  179. 

7ou,  sometimes  singular,  60. 


/ 


A. 


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